3  1822022634653 


(LIBRARY    I 
UNIVERSITY  OF 
CALIFORNIA 
SAN  DIEGO      \ 


JN  VERS  TY  OF  CALIFORNIA   SAN  DIEGO 


3  1822  02263  4653 


Social  Sciences  &  Humanities  Library 

University  of  California,  San  Diego 
Please  Note:  This  item  is  subject  to  recall. 

Date  Due 


1  4  2003 


Cl  39  (5/97) 


UCSD  Lib. 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •   BOSTON  •   CHICAGO   •  DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •  BOMBAY   •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


Columbus  Monument  on  Cathedral  Plaza,  Santo  Domingo  City 


SANTO  DOMINGO 

A  COUNTRY  WITH  A  FUTURE 


BY 

OTTO  SCHOENRICH 


ILLUSTRATED 


fork 
THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1918 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1918 

BY  OTTO  SCHOENRICH 

Set  up  and  printed.    Published  April,  tgi8 


PREFACE 

It  is  remarkable  how  little  has  been  written  about 
the  Dominican  Republic,  a  country  so  near  to  our 
shores,  which  has  for  years  had  intimate  commercial  and 
political  relations  with  our  country,  which  is  at  present 
under  the  provisional  administration  of  the  American 
Government,  and  which  is  destined  to  develop  under 
the  protection  and  guidance  of  the  United  States.  The 
only  comprehensive  publications  on  the  Dominican 
Republic,  in  the  English  language,  are  the  Report  of 
the  United  States  Commission  of  Inquiry  to  Santo 
Domingo,  published  in  1871,  Hazard's  "  Santo  Domingo, 
Past  and  Present,"  written  about  the  same  time,  and 
Professor  Hollander's  notable  Report  on  the  Debt  of 
Santo  Domingo,  published  in  1905.  The  first  and  the 
last  of  these  publications  are  no  longer  obtainable; 
hence,  Hazard's  book,  written  almost  half  a  century 
ago,  is  still  the  chief  source  of  information. 

These  considerations  prompted  me  to  indite  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  in  which  I  have  essayed  to  give  a  bird's- 
eye  view  of  the  history  and  present  condition  of  Santo 
Domingo.  The  task  has  been  complicated  by  two  cir- 
cumstances. One  is  the  extraordinary  difficulty  of 
obtaining  accurate  data.  The  other  is  the  fact  that  the 
country  has  arrived  at  a  turning  point  in  its  history. 
Any  description  of  political,  financial  and  economic 
conditions  can  refer  only,  or  almost  only,  to  the  past; 
the  American  occupation  has  already  introduced  fun- 
damental innovations  which  will  shortly  be  further 
developed,  and  a  rapid  and  radical  transformation  is  in 


vi  PREFACE 

progress.  Santo  Domingo  at  this  moment  is  a  country 
which  has  no  present,  only  a  past  and  a  future. 

My  personal  acquaintance  with  Santo  Domingo  and 
Dominican  affairs  is  derived  from  observations  on 
several  trips  to  the  Dominican  Republic  and  Haiti, 
from  friendships  formed  with  prominent  Dominican 
families  during  a  residence  of  many  years  in  Latin 
America,  and  from  experience  as  secretary  to  the 
special  United  States  commissioner  to  investigate  the 
financial  condition  of  Santo  Domingo  in  1905,  and  as 
secretary  to  the  Dominican  minister  of  finance  during 
the  1906  loan  negotiations. 

In  compiling  this  work  I  have  endeavored  to  read  all 
books  of  any  consequence  which  have  been  published 
with  reference  to  Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti  and  have 
especially  consulted  the  following: 

Jose  Ramon  Abaci,  "La  Republica  Dominicana";  Santo 
Domingo,  1886. 

Rudolf  Cronau,  "Amerika,  die  Geschichte  seiner  Ent- 
deckung";  Leipzig,  1892. 

Enrique  Deschamps,  "La  Republica  Dominicana,  Direc- 
torio  y  Guia  General";  Barcelona,  1906. 

Jose  Gabriel  Garcia,  "Compendio  de  la  Historia  de  Santo 
Domingo";  Santo  Domingo,  1896. 

H.  Harrisse,  "Christophe  Colomb";  Paris,  1884. 

Samuel  Hazard,  "Santo  Domingo,  Past  and  Present,  with 
a  Glance  at  Haiti";  New  York,  1873. 

Jacob  H.  Hollander,  "Report  on  the  Debt  of  Santo 
Domingo";  59th  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Executive 
Document;  Washington,  1905. 

Antonio  Lopez  Prieto,  "Informe  sobre  los  Restos  de 
Colon";  Habana,  1878. 

Fernando  A.  de  Merino,  "Elementos  de  Geografia  Fisica, 
Politica  e  Historica  de  la  Republica  Dominicana";  Santo 
Domingo,  1898. 

Mederic  Louis  Elie  Moreau  de  Saint-Mery,  "Description 


PREFACE  vii 

de  la  partie  espagnole  de  1'isle  Saint-Domingue";  Phila- 
delphia, 1796. 

Casimiro  N.  de  Moya,  "Bosquejo  Historic©  del  Descubri- 
miento  y  Conquista  de  la  Isla  de  Santo  Domingo";  Santo 
Domingo,  1913. 

F.  A.  Ober,  "A  Guide  to  the  West  Indies  and  Panama"; 
New  York,  1914. 

Publications  of  the  Dominican  Government. 

Publications  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Republics  and  the 
Pan-American  Union. 

Annual  Reports  of  the  General  Receiver  of  Customs  of  the 
Dominican  Republic  to  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  War 
Department,  Washington,  1907  to  1917. 

"Report  of  the  United  States  Commission  of  Inquiry  to 
Santo  Domingo";  42d  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Docu- 
ment, Washington,  1871. 

Emiliano  Tejera,  "Los  Restos  de  Colon";  Santo  Domingo, 
1878;  and  "Los  dos  Restos  de  Colon";  Santo  Domingo,  1879. 

L.  Gentil  Tippenhauer,  "Die  Insel  Haiti";  Leipzig,  1892. 

A.  Hyatt  Verrill,  "Porto  Rico,  Past  and  Present,  and  San 
Domingo  of  To-Day";  New  York,  1914. 

William  Walton,  Jr.,  "Present  State  of  the  Spanish 
Colonies,  including  a  particular  report  of  Hispanola";  Lon- 
don, 1810. 

o.  s. 

NEW  YORK,  January,  1918. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.    HISTORICAL  SKETCH — DAYS  OF  THE  CONQUEST — 1492  TO 

IS33 i 

Aborigines — Discovery — Founding  of  Isabela — Disaffection  of  the 
colonists — Indian  wars — Oppression  of  the  Indians — Founding  of 
Santo  Domingo  City — Roldan's  insurrection — Humiliation  of  Co- 
lumbus— Ovando's  administration — Extermination  of  the  natives — 
Administrations  of  Diego  Columbus — Treaty  with  Indian  survivors. 

CHAPTER  II.    HISTORICAL  SKETCH — COLONIAL  VICISSITUDES — 1533  TO 

1801 21 

Decline  of  the  colony — English  attacks  on  Santo  Domingo  City — 
Settlement  of  Tortuga  by  freebooters — French  settlements  in  west- 
ern Santo  Domingo — Border  wars — Cession  of  western  coast  to 
France — Return  of  prosperity — Effect  of  French  Revolution — 
Negro  uprising  in  French  Santo  Domingo — Rise  of  Toussaint 
I'Ouverture — Cession  of  Spanish  Santo  Domingo  to  France — 
Evacuation  by  Spain. 

CHAPTER  III.    HISTORICAL  SKETCH — CHANGES   OF  GOVERNMENT — 

1801  TO  1844 33 

Rule  of  Toussaint  1'Ouverture — Exodus  of  whites — Capture  of  Santo 
Domingo  by  French — War  with  negroes — Government  of  Ferrand 
— Incursion  of  Dessalines — Insurrection  of  Sanchez  Ramirez — Re- 
establishment  of  Spanish  rule — Proclamation  of  Colombian  State 
of  Spanish  Haiti — Conquest  by  Haiti — Haitian  rule — Duarte's 
conspiracy — Declaration  of  Independence. 

CHAPTER  IV.    HISTORICAL  SKETCH — FIRST  REPUBLIC  AND  SPANISH 

ANNEXATION — 1844  TO  1865 45 

Constitution  of  the  government — Santana's  first  administration — 
Wars  with  the  Haitians — Administration  of  Jimenez — Victory  of 
Las  Carreras — Baez'  first  administration — Santana's  second  ad- 
ministration— Repulse  of  Soulouque — Baez'  second  administration 
— Period  of  the  two  governments — Santana's  third  administra- 
tion— Annexation  negotiations — Annexation  to  Spain — War  of  the 
Restoration. 


x  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  V.    HISTORICAL  SKETCH — SECOND  REPUBLIC — REVOLUTIONS 

AND  DICTATORSHIPS — 1863  TO  1904 60 

Restoration  of  the  Republic — Military  presidents — Cabral's  admin- 
istration— Baez'  fourth  administration — Annexation  negotiations 
with  the  United  States — Civil  wars — Heureaux's  rule — Adminis- 
trations of  Jimenez,  Vasquez  and  Woss  y  Gil — Election  of 
Morales. 

CHAPTER  VI.    HISTORICAL  SKETCH — AMERICAN  INFLUENCE — 1904  TO 

date  (1918) 81 

Financial  difficulties — Fiscal  convention  with  the  United  States — 
Caceres'  administration — Provisional  presidents — Civil  disturb- 
ances— Jimenez*  second  administration — American  intervention. 

CHAPTER  VII.    AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES 97 

Area  of  Republics  of  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo — Boundary  disputes — 
Harbors  on  north  coast — Character  of  shore — Samana  Bay — 
Character  of  east  and  south  coast — Harbors  of  Macoris  and  Santo 
Domingo — Ocoa  Bay — Islands — Haitian  frontier. 

CHAPTER  VIII.    TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE 1 16 

Mountains — Valleys  and  plains — Rivers — Lakes — Temperature  and 
Rainfall — Hurricanes — Health  conditions. 

CHAPTER  IX.    GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS 132 

Rock  formation — Mineral  deposits — Gold — Copper — Iron — Coal — 
Silver — Salt — Building  stone — Petroleum — Mineral  springs — 
Earthquakes. 

CHAPTER  X.    FLORA  AND  FAUNA 144 

Agricultural  conditions — Land  titles  and  measures — Wet  and  arid 
regions — Exports — Sugar — Cacao — Tobacco — Coffee — Tropical 
fruits — Forest  products — Insects — Reptiles  —  Fishery  —  Birds  — 
Cattle  raising. 

CHAPTER  XL    THE  PEOPLE 163 

Population — Distribution — Race — Descendants  of  American  negroes 
—  Language  —  Physical  traits  —  Mental  traits  —  Amusements  — 
Dances,  theatres,  clubs,  carnivals — Gaming — Morality — Homes. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XII.    RELIGION 185 

Catholic  religion — Concordat — Ownership  of  church  buildings — 
Clergy — Religious  sentiment — Shrines — Religious  customs  and 
holidays — Religious  toleration — Protestant  sects. 

CHAPTER  XIII.    EDUCATION  AND  LITERATURE. 197 

Education  in  Spanish  times — Work  of  Hostos — School  organization — 
Professional  institute — Primary  and  secondary  education — Liter- 
acy— Libraries — Newspapers — Literature — Fine  arts. 

CHAPTER  XIV.    MEANS  OF  TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION.  . . .  207 
Railroads — Samana-Santiago    Railroad — Central    Dominican    Rail- 
way— Roads — Mode    of   traveling — Inns — Principal    highways — 
Steamer  lines — Postal  facilities — Telegraph  and  telephone  lines. 

CHAPTER  XV.    COMMERCE 232 

Exports  and  imports — Foreign  trade — Trade  with  the  United  States — 
Ports  of  entry — Wharf  concessions — Domestic  trade — Business 
houses — Banks — Manufactures. 

CHAPTER  XVI.    CITIES  AND  TOWNS 242 

General  condition  of  municipalities — Santo  Domingo  City;  ruins, 
churches,  streets,  popular  legends — Other  towns  of  Santo  Domingo 
Province — San  Pedro  de  Macoris — Seibo — Samana  and  Sanchez — 
Pacificador  Province — Concepcion  de  la  Vega — Moca — Santiago  de 
los  Caballeros — Puerto  Plata — Monte  Cristi — Azua — Barahona. 

CHAPTER  XVII.    THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS 277 

Burial  of  Columbus — Disappearance  of  epitaph — Removal  of  remains 
in  1795 — Discovery  of  remains  in  1877 — Resting-place  of  Discoverer 
of  America. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    GOVERNMENT 303 

Form  of  government — Constitutions — Presidents — Election — Powers 
— Executive  Secretaries — Land  and  sea  forces — Congress — Local 
subdivisions — Provincial  governors — Communal  governments. 

CHAPTER  XIX.    POLITICS  AND  REVOLUTIONS 322 

Political  parties — Elections — Relation  between  politics  and  revolu- 
tions— Conduct  of  revolutions — Casualties — Number  of  revolutions 
— Effect  of  revolutions. 


xii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XX.    LAW  AND  JUSTICE 336 

Audiencia  of  Santo  Domingo — Legal  system — Judicial  organization — 
Observance  of  law — Prisons — Character  of  offenses. 

CHAPTER  XXI.    THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  AND  THE  FISCAL  TREATY  WITH 

THE  UNITED  STATES 350 

Financial  situation  in  1905 — Causes  of  debt — Amount  of  debt — 
Bonded  debt — Liquidated  debt — Floating  debt — Declared  claims — 
Undeclared  claims — Surrender  of  Puerto  Plata  custom-house — 
Fiscal  convention  of  1905 — Modus  vivendi — Negotiations  for  ad- 
justment of  debt — New  bond  issue — Fiscal  treaty  of  1907 — Ad- 
justment with  creditors — 1912  loan — Present  financial  situation. 

CHAPTER  XXII.    FINANCES 376 

Financial  system — National  revenues — Customs  tariff — National 
budget — Legal  tender — Municipal  income — Municipal  budgets. 

CHAPTER  XXIII.    THE  FUTURE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO 389 

Attraction  by  the  United  States — Political  future  of  Santo  Domingo — 
Economic  future  of  Santo  Domingo. 

APPENDIX  A.    CHIEFS  OF  STATE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO,  1492-1918 397 

APPENDIX  B.  OLD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  IN  USE  IN  SANTO  DOMINGO  402 
APPENDIX  C.  AMERICAN-DOMINICAN  FISCAL  CONVENTION  OF  1907... .  404 
INDEX 409 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Columbus  Monument  on  Cathedral  Plaza,  Santo 

Domingo  City Frontispiece 

Map  of  Santo  Domingo facing  page       i 

Historic  Gateway  "La  Puerta  del  Conde,"  where 
the  independence  of  the  Dominican  Republic 
was  declared: 

View  from  within  the  city      ....  "42 

View  from  without,  during  a  revolution  "      42 
The  Strongest  Presidents  of  Santo  Domingo: 

President  Pedro  Santana "         "68 

President  Buenaventura  Baez     ...  "68 

President  Ulises  Heureaux     ....  "         "68 

President  Ramon  Caceres       ....  "68 
Four  Prominent  Dominicans: 

President  Juan  Isidro  Jimenez    ...  "88 

President  Horacio  Vasquez    ....  "         "88 

Minister  of  Finance  Federico  Velazquez  "      88 

Archbishop  Adolfo  A.  Nouel  ....  "         "88 
One  of  the  Many  Beautiful  Spots  on  the  Shores 

of  Samana  Bay "         "    106 

Partaking  of  Cocoanut-water "         "    106 

Street  in  Bani "         "140 

Street  in  Puerto  Plata "         "140 

A  Roadside  Store "         "158 

Building  a  House  with  the  Products  of  the  Palm- 
tree  "  "158 

Room  in  "Casino  de  la  Juventud,"  Santo  Do- 
mingo City  "  "  180 

A  Holiday  Gathering,  Santo  Domingo  City    .     .  "    180 
Ruins  of  San  Francisco  Church,  Santo  Domingo 

City         "        "    186 

A  "Calvario"  in  the  Road "         "218 

Road  Scene:  A  Mudhole  "         "    218 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Wharf  and  Harbor  of  San  Pedro  de  Macoris  .      .     facing  page  238 

Entrance  to  Cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo       .      .  "    250 
"House  of  Columbus,"  Ruins  of  Diego  Columbus' 

Palace "         "250 

The  "Tower  of  Homage,"  the  oldest  fortification 

erected  by  white  men  in  America: 

View  from  mouth  of  Ozama  River    .      .  "    256 

View  from  within  fort "    256 

Puerto  Plata  Scene:  Milkmen "         "270 

Puerto  Plata  Scene:  The  Ox  as  a  Riding  Animal.  "         "    270 

Sanctuary  of  Santo  Domingo  Cathedral    ...  "    280 

Diagram  of  Sanctuary  of  Cathedral     ....  "    290 
Lead    Box    found    in    1877   with    Remains    of 

Columbus "    295 

Inscription  on  Lid  of  Lead  Box "    298 

Obverse  Side  of  Silver  Plate "    299 

Reverse  Side  of  Silver  Plate "300 

The  Bane  of  Santo  Domingo:  Intrenchment  at 

Puerta  del  Conde  during  a  revolution      .      .  "    330 

Independence  Plaza,  Santo  Domingo  City      .      .  "    386 

Cathedral  Plaza,  Santo  Domingo  City       ...  "         "    386 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


SANTO   DOMINGO 


CHAPTER  I 

HISTORICAL    SKETCH. DAYS    OF    THE    CONQUEST. 1492 

to  1533 

Aborigines. — Discovery. — Founding  of  Isabela. — Disaffection  of  the  colo- 
nists.— Indian  wars. — Oppression  of  the  Indians. — Founding  of  Santo 
Domingo  City. — Roldan's  insurrection. — Humiliation  of  Columbus. — 
Ovando's  administration. — Extermination  of  the  natives. — Adminis- 
trations of  Diego  Columbus. — Treaty  with  Indian  survivors. 

When  Columbus,  in  December,  1492,  sailed  along 
the  northern  coast  of  the  island  of  Haiti  or  Santo 
Domingo,  he  was  more  enchanted  with  what  he  saw 
than  he  had  been  with  any  of  his  previous  discoveries. 
Giant  mountains,  covered  with  verdant  forests,  seemed 
to  rise  precipitately  from  the  blue  waters  and  lift  their 
heads  to  the  very  clouds.  Beautiful  rivers  watered 
fertile  valleys,  luscious  fruits  hung  from  the  trees, 
fragrant  flowers  carpeted  the  ground,  and  the  air  was 
filled  with  the  songs  of  birds  of  gay  plumage.  There 
were  scenes  of  nature's  magnificence  such  as  are  found 
only  in  the  tropics.  Columbus,  as  he  gazed  upon  them 
in  admiration,  little  thought  that  this  beautiful  island 
was  to  witness  his  greatest  sorrows,  that  it  was  to  be 
his  final  resting  place,  and  that  it  was  in  later  genera- 
tions to  become  the  theater  of  long  years  of  war  and 
carnage. 

At  the  time  of  its  discovery  the  island  of  Santo 
Domingo  was  thickly  inhabited.  The  native  Indians 
were  Arawaks  belonging  to  the  same  race  as  those  who 


2  SANTO  DOMINGO 

occupied  the  other  larger  West  India  Islands.  Unlike 
the  fierce  Caribs  who  inhabited  some  of  the  smaller 
Antilles,  the  Arawaks  were  of  a  gentle  and  meek  dis- 
position. They  were  inclined  to  idleness  and  sensuality. 
Columbus  lauded  their  kindliness  and  generosity; 
the  possession  of  these  traits,  however,  did  not  prevent 
them  from  fighting  bravely  when  exasperated. 

Living  in  the  stone  age,  they  knew  none  of  the  useful 
metals,  but  gold  ornaments  were  used  for  adornment. 
Older  men  and  married  women  wore  short  aprons  of 
cotton  or  feathers;  all  other  persons  went  entirely  nude. 
Their  favorite  amusements  were  ball  games  and  savage 
dances  with  weird,  monotonous  music;  their  religion 
was  the  worship  of  a  great  spirit  and  of  subordinate 
deities  represented  by  idols,  called  "zemis,"  carved 
of  wood  and  stone  in  grotesque  form,  and  of  which 
some  are  still  occasionally  found  in  caverns  or  tombs. 
They  dwelt  in  rude  palm-thatched  huts,  the  principal 
article  of  furniture  being  the  hammock.  Simple  agri- 
culture, hunting  and  fishing  provided  their  means  of 
livelihood. 

The  natives  called  the  island  Haiti,  signifying  "high 
ground,"  but  the  western  portion  was  also  called  Babe- 
que  or  Bohio,  meaning  "land  of  gold"  and  the  eastern 
part  Quisqueya,  meaning  "mother  of  the  earth."  The 
name  Quisqueya  is  the  one  by  which  Dominican  poets 
now  refer  to  their  country.  The  inhabitants  lived  in 
communities  ruled  by  local  caciques,  and  the  country 
was  divided  into  five  principal  regions,  each  under  an 
absolute  chief  cacique,  as  follows : 

Magua,  signifying  "watered  plain,"  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  island  and  comprising  most  of  what  is  to-day 
known  as  the  Cibao — that  part  of  the  Dominican 
Republic  lying  north  of  the  central  mountain-range. 
The  chief  was  Guarionex. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  3 

Marien,  or  Mariel,  comprised  the  northwestern  por- 
tion of  the  island  and  was  ruled  by  Guacanagari. 

Jaragua  comprised  the  southwestern  part,  its  chief 
being  Bohechio,  the  oldest  of  the  caciques. 

Maguana  extended  from  the  center  of  the  island  to 
the  south  coast  near  Azua  and  was  ruled  by  the  proud 
Caonabo. 

Higuey,  or  Higuayagua,  the  most  bellicose  portion 
of  the  country,  comprised  the  entire  southeast  and  was 
ruled  by  Cayacoa. 

Columbus  happened  upon  the  island  on  his  first 
voyage.  After  discovering  Guanahani  on  October  12, 
1492,  and  vainly  searching  for  Japan  among  the  Ba- 
hama Islands,  he  discovered  Cuba  and  while  skirting 
along  the  north  shore  of  what  he  supposed  to  be  the 
mainland  heard  of  an  island  said  to  be  rich  in  gold, 
lying  to  the  east.  Taking  an  easterly  course,  he  was 
abandoned  by  the  Pinta,  one  of  his  caravels,  whose 
captain,  disregarding  the  admiral's  signals,  sailed  away 
to  seek  his  fortune  alone.  Continuing  with  his  remain- 
ing caravels,  the  Santa  Maria  and  the  Nina,  Columbus 
reached  Cape  Maisi,  the  easternmost  point  of  Cuba, 
where  he  sighted  a  high  mountainous  land  lying  in  a 
southeasterly  direction.  On  the  following  day,  Decem- 
ber 6,  1492,  he  reached  this  land,  which  he  called 
la  Espanola,  because  it  reminded  him  of  Andalusia. 
In  English  histories  the  name  is  modified  to  Hispaniola. 
The  port  Columbus  called  San  Nicolas,  as  he  had  en- 
tered it  on  St.  Nicholas  day,  and  it  is  now  known  as 
Mole  St.  Nicolas. 

Columbus  then  sailed  along  the  north  coast  of  the 
island  and  entered  the  pretty  little  port  known  to-day 
as  Port-a-1'Ecu.  Here,  on  December  12,  he  solemnly 
took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name  of  his  sov- 
ereigns, erecting  a  wooden  cross  on  a  high  hill  on  the 


4  SANTO  DOMINGO 

western  side  of  the  bay.  He  then  visited  Tortuga 
Island,  to  the  north,  giving  it  this  name  on  account  of 
its  shape  and  the  great  number  of  turtles  in  the  water 
near  its  coast.  After  stopping  in  a  harbor  which  he 
called  Puerto  de  Paz,  Port  of  Peace,  because  of  the 
harmony  which  prevailed  at  the  meetings  with  the 
natives,  Columbus  continued  in  an  easterly  direction, 
but  adverse  winds  compelled  him  to  put  into  the  bay 
of  Santo  Tomas,  to-day  bay  of  1'Acul,  where  the  cordial 
intercourse  with  the  natives  was  renewed.  Here  he 
received  an  embassy  from  the  chief  of  the  district, 
Guacanagari,  inviting  him  to  vist  the  cacique's  resi- 
dence, further  along  the  coast,  and  bringing  him  as 
presents  a  wampum  belt  artistically  worked  and  a 
wooden  mask  with  eyes,  tongue  and  nose  of  gold. 

To  accept  the  invitation  Columbus  set  sail  on  the 
morning  of  December  24.  In  the  evening  when  the 
admiral  had  retired  the  helmsman  committed  the  in- 
discretion of  confiding  the  helm  to  a  ship's  boy.  About 
midnight  when  off  Cape  Haitien,  near  their  destination, 
the  vessel  was  caught  in  a  current  and  swept  upon  a 
sandbank  where  she  began  to  keel  over.  During  the 
confusion  which  followed,  Columbus  had  the  main- 
mast chopped  down  but  all  efforts  to  right  the  ship  were 
in  vain,  and  Columbus  and  the  crew  were  obliged  to 
take  refuge  on  the  little  Nina. 

As  soon  as  Guacanagari  received  news  of  the  disaster 
he  sent  large  canoes  filled  with  men  to  help  the  strangers 
transport  their  stores  to  the  shore.  The  relations  be- 
tween the  Spaniards  and  the  Indians  became  most 
cordial,  especially  as  the  Spaniards  were  gratified  to 
obtain  much  gold  in  exchange  for  articles  of  insignificant 
value,  owing  to  which  circumstances  and  to  the  natural 
advantages  of  the  location,  Columbus  determined  to 
build  a  fort  with  the  wreckage  of  his  vessel.  The  fort 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  5 

was  on  a  hill  east  of  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Cape 
Haitien.  Columbus  gave  it  the  name  of  La  Navidad 
because  he  had  entered  the  bay  on  Christmas  day,  and 
leaving  thirty-nine  men  as  colonists  set  out  on  the 
Nina  on  January  4,  1493,  on  his  return  trip  to  Spain. 

Near  the  great  yellow  promontory  on  the  north  of 
the  island,  to  which  Columbus  gave  the  name  it  still 
retains  of  Monte  Cristi,  the  Pinta,  which  had  deserted 
the  other  vessels  off  Cuba,  was  sighted.  Columbus 
having  heard  the  excuses  of  the  Pinta's  captain,  took 
no  action  with  respect  to  the  latter's  delinquency,  but 
set  about  exploring  a  large  river  in  the  vicinity  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  Rio  de  Oro  and  which  to-day  is 
called  the  Yaque.  Continuing  the  journey  along  the 
coast  of  the  island  the  vessels  rounded  the  giant  promon- 
tory of  Cape  Cabron  and  that  of  Samana  and  entered 
the  great  bay  of  Samana  which  Columbus  at  first  took 
to  be  an  arm  of  the  sea.  Here  it  was  that  the  first 
armed  encounter  between  sons  of  the  old  world  and  the 
new  took  place.  The  Indians  set  upon  the  Spaniards 
when  they  landed  but  were  quickly  driven  to  flight, 
one  of  their  number  being  severely  wounded.  On  the 
following  day,  however,  a  more  pleasant  meeting  took 
place  and  presents  were  exchanged.  On  January  16 
the  two  vessels  set  sail  for  Spain. 

The  immense  excitement  produced  in  Spain  by  the 
discoveries  of  Columbus  made  the  preparation  of  an- 
other expedition  an  easy  matter,  and  on  September  25, 
1493,  the  admiral  again  set  out  from  Spain,  this  time 
with  sixteen  ships  and  some  1300  men.  After  touching 
at  several  of  the  Leeward  Islands  and  Porto  Rico,  the 
fleet  sighted  the  Samana  peninsula  on  November  22, 
1493,  and  three  days  later  arrived  at  Monte  Cristi. 
Here  the  finding  of  two  corpses  of  Spaniards  filled  the 
members  of  the  expedition  with  grave  apprehensions, 


6  SANTO  DOMINGO 

which  proved  justified  when  two  days  later  they  arrived 
at  La  Navidad  and  found  the  fort  completely  destroyed, 
the  Indian  village  burnt  to  the  ground,  and  the  whole 
neighborhood  silent  and  desolate. 

Guacanagari  was  found  at  a  village  further  inland 
and  according  to  his  story  and  that  of  other  Indians,  a 
number  of  Spaniards  had  succumbed  to  disease,  others 
were  killed  in  brawls  among  themselves  and  the  remain- 
der died  at  the  hands  of  the  inland  caciques  Caonabo 
and  Guarionex  and  their  warriors,  who  attacked  and 
destroyed  both  the  fort  and  the  village  of  Guacanagari. 
At  the  same  time  it  was  stated  that  the  Spaniards  had 
made  themselves  hateful  to  the  natives  by  their  domi- 
neering disposition  and  their  lewdness  and  covetous- 
ness.  The  rinding  in  some  of  the  native  huts  of  objects 
that  had  belonged  to  the  colonists,  as  well  as  other 
suspicious  circumstances,  caused  Father  Boil  and  other 
companions  of  Columbus  to  doubt  the  chief's  story  and 
insist  that  sanguinary  vengeance  be  taken.  Columbus, 
however,  affected  to  be  satisfied  with  the  explanation 
given  and  determined  to  take  no  further  action,  but  to 
seek  a  new  location  for  the  colony.  From  this  time 
forward  discord  divided  not  only  the  Spaniards  and 
Indians  but  also  the  Spaniards  themselves. 

As  the  fleet  was  sailing  east  the  weather  obliged 
it  to  put  into  an  indentation  of  the  coast  fifty  miles 
east  of  Monte  Cristi.  The  place  so  charmed  the  Span- 
iards that  it  was  decided  to  found  a  town  here.  The 
first  city  of  the  new  world  was  therefore  laid  out  and 
Columbus  gave  it  the  name  of  Isabela,  in  honor  of  his 
royal  patron.  During  the  construction  of  the  city 
Columbus  sent  two  expeditions  to  the  Cibao  mountains, 
both  of  which  succeeded  in  collecting  a  large  amount 
of  gold. 

It  soon  became  evident  that  the  neighborhood  of  Isa- 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  ^ 

bela  was  not  a  healthy  one.  Fever  invaded  the  colony; 
Columbus  himself  was  not  exempt.  Discontent  came 
and  an  uprising  among  the  soldiers  was  nipped  in  the 
bud.  On  recovering  from  his  illness  Columbus  re- 
solved to  make  an  exploration  of  the  interior;  and  with 
drums  beating  and  flags  flying  a  brilliant  expedition 
left  Isabela.  The  beautiful  Royal  Plain  was  soon 
reached  and  friendly  relations  established  with  its 
peaceful  inhabitants,  whose  wonder  at  the  Spaniards 
and  terror  at  their  horses  knew  no  bounds.  A  fortress 
was  founded  on  the  banks  of  the  Janico  river  and  called 
Santo  Tomas.  Columbus  then  returned  to  Isabela  to 
find  the  town  in  a  state  of  excitement  on  account  of 
petty  quarrels  and  the  general  sickness.  Picking  out 
the  principal  malcontents  he  sent  them  to  Santo  Tomas, 
and  ordered  that  another  fortress  be  founded.  On 
April  24,  1494,  he  left  the  island  with  three  vessels  for  a 
voyage  of  exploration  to  the  west,  entrusting  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  colony  to  his  brother  Diego  and  an  exec- 
utive council. 

But  a  short  time  elapsed  before  new  dissensions  broke 
out,  followed  by  troubles  with  the  Indians.  A  military 
expedition  dispatched  to  the  interior  committed  nu- 
merous depredations  and  drove  the  natives  into  the 
ranks  of  Caonabo,  who  was  planning  the  expulsion 
of  the  strangers.  The  commander  of  the  expedition, 
Moisen  Pedro  de  Margarite,  was  called  to  account  by 
Diego  Columbus;  but  conspiring  with  Father  Boil, 
the  religious  head  of  the  colony,  the  two  contrived  to 
excite  a  popular  insurrection  against  the  governor, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  Dominican  revolu- 
tion. At  this  time  Bartholomew  Columbus,  another 
brother  of  the  admiral,  arrived  with  provisions,  and  the 
insurrectionists,  taking  possession  of  the  ships,  returned 
in  them  to  Spain  where  they  lost  no  opportunity  to 


8  SANTO  DOMINGO 

disparage  the  achievements  of  Columbus  and  to  slander 
him  and  his  brothers. 

The  principal  caciques  of  the  island  now  formed  an 
alliance  and  uniting  their  forces  laid  siege  to  Santo 
Tomas.  Only  Guacanagari  refused  to  join  them  and 
hurried  to  Isabela  to  offer  his  services  to  the  Spaniards. 
At  this  juncture,  on  September  29, 1494,  Columbus,  sick 
and  weary,  returned  from  his  voyage,  during  which, 
after  other  discoveries,  he  had  explored  a  portion  of 
the  south  coast  of  the  island.  As  soon  as  he  had  re- 
covered sufficient  strength  he  led  an  expedition  into 
the  interior,  relieved  Santo  Tomas,  won  numerous 
victories  over  the  natives  and  founded  another  fortress, 
La  Concepcion,  in  the  Vega  Real,  or  Royal  Plain. 
Caonabo,  however,  assembled  a  vast  number  of  warriors 
and  forced  Columbus  to  renewed  efforts.  The  Span- 
iards and  Indians  met  where  the  ruins  of  the  old  city 
of  Concepcion  de  la  Vega  now  are,  and  the  famous  battle 
of  the  Royal  Plain  was  fought  on  March  25,  1495.  The 
natives  are  alleged  by  the  Spanish  historians  to  have 
numbered  100,000,  while  the  Spaniards  had  but  200 
men  and  20  horses,  besides  the  warriors  of  Guacanagari. 
In  the  battle,  a  bloody  one,  the  Indians  were  com- 
pletely beaten,  their  discomfiture  being  due  principally 
to  the  superior  arms  of  the  Europeans  and  the  fear 
inspired  by  the  horses  and  by  twenty  blood-hounds 
brought  into  the  fight  by  the  Spaniards.  On  the  oc- 
casion of  this  battle  the  miracle  of  the  Santo  Cerro,  or 
Holy  Hill,  is  said  to  have  occurred,  when,  according 
to  the  Spanish  chroniclers,  the  Indians  captured  an 
eminence  on  which  the  Spaniards  had  erected  a  wooden 
cross,  but  were  unable  to  destroy  the  cross  with  fire  or 
hatchet,  and  were  finally  frightened  away  by  the  ap- 
parition of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

This  one  crushing  defeat  definitely  broke  the  Indians' 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  9 

power,  for  though  there  were  subsequent  outbreaks 
they  were  only  sporadic  and,  with  one  exception,  of 
comparatively  little  importance.  Caonabo  still  re- 
mained at  large  and  the  Spaniards  secured  possession 
of  his  person  by  one  of  those  feats  of  individual  prowess 
which  mark  the  history  of  the  conquest.  The  Spaniard 
Alonso  de  Ojeda  went  out  in  search  of  the  cacique, 
and  having  found  him  with  his  warriors,  suggested 
that  they  repair  to  Isabela  together  to  arrange  terms  of 
peace  with  Columbus.  The  suggestion  being  accepted, 
they  set  out  and  on  crossing  the  Yaque  river  Ojeda 
pressed  the  Indian  to  put  on  a  pair  of  handcuffs,  assert- 
ing that  these  bracelets  were  a  distinction  of  the  king 
of  Castile.  Caonabo  acceded,  whereupon  the  Spaniard 
sprang  upon  his  horse  and  swinging  the  chief  upon 
the  croup,  fled  from  the  midst  of  the  astonished  war- 
riors and  bore  him  a  prisoner  to  Isabela.  Caonabo 
was  later  embarked  for  Spain  but  died  on  the  voy- 
age. 

A  beginning  was  now  made  of  the  harsh  oppression 
which  was  soon  to  cause  the  entire  disappearance  of 
the  native  race.  A  quarterly  tribute  was  imposed  on 
every  Indian  above  the  age  of  fourteen.  Those  who 
lived  in  the  auriferous  region  of  the  Cibao  were  obliged 
to  deliver  as  much  gold  dust  as  could  be  held  in  a  small 
bell,  others  were  to  give  twenty-five  pounds  of  cotton. 
Many  natives  fled  to  the  mountains  to  escape  the 
onerous  tax  and  new  settlements  were  established  by 
the  Spaniards. 

The  enemies  of  Columbus  had  in  the  meantime  been 
sufficiently  successful  in  Spain  to  cause  one  de  Aguado 
to  be  sent  out  with  the  object  of  investigating  condi- 
tions in  the  colony.  His  conduct  from  the  very  first 
was  so  arrogant  that  the  admiral  determined  to  return 
at  once  to  justify  himself  before  the  court.  On  March 


I©  SANTO  DOMINGO 

10,  1496,  he  embarked  for  Spain,  leaving  his  brother 
Bartholomew  as  governor  of  the  colony. 

Before  his  departure  the  news  arrived  of  the  discovery 
of  several  rich  gold  mines  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
island.  They  were  found  by  a  soldier  named  Miguel 
Diaz,  who  having  fled  to  the  wilderness  to  escape  pun- 
ishment for  wounding  a  comrade,  had  established  con- 
jugal relations  with  an  Indian  woman  near  the  present 
site  of  Santo  Domingo  City.  Noticing  that  her  consort 
was  tiring  of  her,  the  lady  tried  to  retain  him  by  re- 
vealing the  existence  of  gold  deposits  in  the  region; 
and  Diaz  promptly  secured  his  pardon  and  promotion 
by  reporting  the  find  to  Isabela.  The  romance  had  a 
sad  ending,  for  the  Indian,  shocked  at  the  cruel  treat- 
ment accorded  her  countrymen  by  the  Spaniards  who 
came  to  the  place,  abandoned  her  husband  and  children 
and  disappeared  in  the  forest. 

On  arriving  in  Spain,  Columbus  wrote  his  brother  to 
found  a  town  on  the  south  coast  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Ozama.  Bartholomew  Columbus  immediately  set  out 
to  select  a  site  and  on  August  4,  1496,  laid  the  first 
stone  of  the  new  city  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ozama, 
calling  it  Nueva  Isabela,  in  honor  of  the  queen.  The 
name  was  afterwards  changed  to  Santo  Domingo  in 
honor,  so  tradition  has  it,  of  the  saint  to  whom  the  day 
of  its  foundation  was  dedicated.  As  the  location  of 
this  city  was  much  healthier  than  that  of  fever-ridden 
Isabela  on  the  north  coast,  the  settlers  in  an  ever  in- 
creasing stream  removed  to  the  new  town  which  flour- 
ished as  the  other  decayed,  until  after  a  few  years 
Isabela  was  entirely  abandoned.  The  only  vestiges 
now  remaining  of  it  are  a  few  ruined  foundation  walls 
and  shapeless  heaps  of  stone  overgrown  with  rank 
tropical  vegetation. 

Bartholomew  Columbus  busied  himself  with  further 


II 

explorations  of  the  interior,  founding  a  number  of 
strongholds,  among  them  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros, 
which  commanded  the  Royal  Plain.  While  at  Concep- 
cion  de  la  Vega  he  was  informed  that  several  Indians 
had  burned  an  altar  erected  by  friars  in  the  interior, 
and  had  buried  the  sacred  images.  The  bigoted  gov- 
ernor had  the  Indians  apprehended  and  burnt  alive 
in  the  public  square.  This  cruel  act  induced  fourteen 
caciques  to  conspire  for  an  uprising;  but  their  designs 
being  betrayed,  they  were  captured  by  a  bold  stroke 
and  two  of  them  executed.  Determined  to  crush  the 
spirit  of  the  natives,  Bartholomew  Columbus  invaded 
and  devastated  the  district  of  Monte  Cristi,  driving  the 
Indians  into  the  remote  forests  and  capturing  and  im- 
prisoning their  chiefs. 

His  severity  was  not  confined  to  the  Indians,  but  the 
Spaniards,  naturally  restive  under  the  government  of  a 
Genovese,  were  also  made  to  feel  it  until  their  disaffec- 
tion developed  into  open  rebellion. 

At  the  head  of  the  conspiracy  was  Francisco  Roldan, 
the  judge  of  the  colony,  a  man  ambitious  and  seditious 
by  nature,  but  who  owed  Columbus  many  favors. 
Others,  disgusted  because  their  dreams  of  gold  had  not 
been  realized,  followed  him  and  the  insurrection  was 
soon  well  under  way.  The  rebels  took  Isabela  and 
sacked  the  government  storehouse  and  then  took  steps 
to  .besiege  Bartholomew  Columbus  at  Concepcion  de 
la  Vega.  The  arrival  of  fresh  troops  and  stores  from 
Spain  enabled  the  governor  to  hold  the  rebels  in  check. 

Such  was  the  deplorable  state  of  affairs  when  Colum- 
bus returned  to  the  island  on  August  30,  1498.  Realiz- 
ing Roldan's  strength,  he  consented  to  make  terms 
under  which  the  insurgents  were  to  receive  stores  and 
other  property  and  return  to  Spain.  By  the  time  their 
vessels  were  ready  most  of  them  had  changed  their 


12  SANTO  DOMINGO 

mind  and  declined  to  go,  but  they  wrote  letters  to 
Spain  bitterly  complaining  of  the  admiral  and  his 
brothers,  and  accusing  them  of  oppression  and  des- 
potism. Columbus  found  himself  obliged  to  agree  to 
the  most  humiliating  terms  with  the  rebels,  conceding 
a  complete  pardon,  restoring  them  to  their  official 
posts,  promising  to  pay  their  salary  in  arrears  and 
distributing  lands  and  Indians  among  them.  Neverthe- 
less, other  quarrels  followed,  Columbus  was  forced  to 
take  severe  measures  and  the  complaints  against  him 
grew. 

Little  by  little  the  stories  of  arrogance  and  oppres- 
sion circulated  with  reference  to  the  Columbus  brothers 
undermined  the  esteem  in  which  they  were  held  by  the 
sovereigns,  who  were  also  disappointed  at  not  seeing 
the  fabulous  wealth  they  had  expected  from  the  new 
discoveries.  They  determined  to  send  to  the  island  of 
Espanola  a  person  authorized  to  investigate  conditions 
and  decide  all  disputes. 

Their  choice  for  the  mission  was  unfortunate;  it  fell 
on  Francisco  Bobadilla,  a  spiteful,  arrogant  and  tact- 
less man.  On  arriving  in  Santo  Domingo  on  August  23, 
1500,  he  immediately  began  to  annul  dispositions  made 
by  Columbus  and  sent  for  the  admiral  who  was  in  the 
interior.  As  soon  as  Columbus  appeared,  Bobadilla, 
far  exceeding  his  authority,  caused  him  to  be  put  in 
chains  and  confined  in  a  cell  of  the  fortress  of  Santo 
Domingo.  He  also  imprisoned  the  brothers  of  Colum- 
bus and  sent  them  to  Spain  together  with  the  Dis- 
coverer, all  chained  like  infamous  criminals.  At  the 
same  time  he  made  a  report  attributing  malfeasance, 
injustice  and  fraud  to  all. 

The  administration  of  Bobadilla  was  disastrous.  In 
his  efforts  to  ingratiate  himself  with  Columbus'  enemies 
he  heaped  favors  on  Roldan  and  his  followers  and  gave 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  13 

them  franchises  and  lands.  He  made  the  slavery  of  the 
Indians  more  galling  than  ever,  obliging  them  to  labor 
in  the  fields  and  mines.  Columbus'  property  and 
papers  were  confiscated  and  Columbus'  friend,  the 
explorer  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  was  imprisoned  and  his 
property  seized. 

The  captain  of  the  vessel  bearing  Columbus  treated 
his  distinguished  prisoner  with  all  possible  deference 
and  offered  to  take  off  the  chains,  but  the  Discoverer, 
whose  heart  was  breaking  under  the  indignities  heaped 
upon  him  and  the  injustice  of  which  he  was  the  victim, 
proudly  refused.  When  the  vessel  arrived  in  Spain  the 
sovereigns,  shocked  at  Bobadilla's  proceedings,  com- 
manded the  immediate  release  of  Columbus,  ordered 
that  his  property  be  restored  and  overwhelmed  him 
with  distinctions,  though  providing  that  his  dignities  as 
viceroy  were  to  remain  temporarily  suspended;  proba- 
bly because  the  calculating  spirit  of  King  Ferdinand 
believed  that  too  much  power  had  been  vested  in  his 
subject.  Bobadilla  was  removed  from  office,  and 
Nicolas  de  Ovando,  a  member  of  the  religious-military 
order  of  Alcantara,  was  appointed  governor  in  his 
place. 

Ovando  arrived  in  Santo  Domingo  on  April  15, 
1502,  with  a  fleet  of  thirty  vessels,  the  largest  which  up 
to  that  time  had  arrived  in  the  new  world,  carrying 
stores  of  every  kind  and  over  1 500  persons,  among  them 
many  who  later  attained  distinction  in  conquests  on 
the  mainland.  He  was  courteous  to  Bobadilla,  but 
took  measures  to  send  Roldan  and  the  most  turbulent 
of  his  companions  back  to  Spain  on  the  return  of  his 
fleet,  the  largest  vessel  of  which  was  placed  at  the 
disposition  of  Bobadilla. 

Just  before  the  sailing  of  the  fleet,  on  June  30,  1502, 
Columbus  unexpectedly  appeared  before  the  city  on  his 


14  SANTO  DOMINGO 

fourth  voyage,  and  asked  permission  to  enter  the  port 
for  protection  from  a  hurricane  which  he  believed  was 
approaching.  Ovando,  either  because  he  had  secret 
orders,  or  perhaps  because  he  feared  Columbus'  presence 
might  cause  renewed  disturbances,  denied  the  request, 
and  the  great  man,  deeply  wounded  by  the  refusal, 
sought  shelter  further  up  the  coast. 

The  pilots  of  the  great  fleet  derided  Columbus' 
prediction  and  the  ships  set  sail.  They  had  not  reached 
the  easternmost  point  of  the  island  when  a  terrific 
hurricane  broke  loose.  All  but  two  of  the  vessels  were 
lost,  and  by  a  strange  coincidence  one  of  these  two  bore 
Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  the  friend  of  Columbus,  while  the 
other,  the  smallest  and  weakest  vessel  of  the  fleet,  was 
the  one  that  carried  Columbus'  property.  Bobadilla, 
Roldan  and  other  enemies  of  the  admiral,  and  many 
other  passengers  and  Indian  captives  perished  and 
large  stores  of  gold  were  lost.  Columbus'  squadron 
rode  out  the  storm  in  safety  in  a  cove  of  the  bay  of 
Azua,  whereupon  he  continued  his  voyage. 

On  land,  too,  the  hurricane  wrought  great  destruc- 
tion. The  houses  of  the  town  of  Santo  Domingo  were 
demolished  and  as  the  right  bank  of  the  Ozama  was 
higher  and  seemed  more  suitable,  Ovando  ordered  that 
the  town  be  rebuilt  on  that  side,  where  it  now  stands. 

Ovando  now  inaugurated  a  period  of  general  pros- 
perity. He  established  peace  and  order,  issued  rules  for 
the  different  branches  of  the  public  service,  placed 
honest  men  in  the  posts  of  responsibility  and  encour- 
aged industry  and  agriculture.  Yet,  strange  mixture 
of  energy  and  cruelty,  of  valor  and  bigotry  that  he  was, 
his  treatment  of  the  Indians  was  most  oppressive.  To 
each  Spanish  landholder  was  assigned  a  number  of 
Indians  under  the  pretext  that  they  were  to  be  given 
religious  instruction  and  accustomed  to  work;  but  so 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  15 

onerous  and  unremitting  was  the  labor  imposed  that 
they  succumbed  to  disease  by  thousands,  while  thou- 
sands of  others  perished  by  their  own  hand  in  an 
epidemic  of  suicide  which  swept  through  the  country, 
and  many  fled  to  almost  inaccessible  mountain  regions. 

But  two  Indian  chieftains  still  reigned  in  the  island, 
one  the  Indian  queen  Anacaona  in  the  district  of  Jar- 
agua,  the  other  the  chief  of  Higuey.  Ovando's  severe 
measures  against  the  natives  made  him  ready  to  believe 
the  tales  of  conspiracies  brought  to  him.  He  therefore 
sent  a  troop  of  300  infantry  under  Diego  Velazquez,  the 
future  conqueror  of  Cuba,  and  70  horsemen,  to  the 
territory  of  Anacaona,  where  they  were  received  with 
every  mark  of  kindness.  The  Spaniards  invited  the 
natives  to  witness  a  military  drill  and  when  the  queen, 
her  principal  caciques  and  a  great  crowd  of  Indians 
were  assembled,  the  exercises  commenced.  The  Indians 
were  awed  by  the  spectacle  so  new  and  imposing  to 
them,  when  suddenly  the  trumpets  gave  a  signal,  the 
infantry  opened  fire  and  the  cavalry  charged  on  the 
defenseless  spectators.  All  the  Indians  who  could  not 
escape  by  flight  were  massacred  without  respect  to 
age  or  sex.  Anacaona  alone  was  spared  and  carried  off 
to  Santo  Domingo  where  she  was  shortly  afterwards 
ignominiously  executed,  on  the  pretext  that  she  was 
not  sufficiently  sincere  in  the  Catholic  religion  which 
she  had  recently  professed!  A  tenacious  persecution  of 
the  Indians  who  would  not  become  slaves  was  insti- 
tuted and  but  few  were  able  to  hide  in  the  mountains 
of  the  interior. 

In  1503  the  subjugation  of  the  last  remaining  in- 
dependent chieftain,  Cotubanama,  lord  of  Higuey,  in 
the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  island,  was  undertaken. 
Near  this  province  a  Spaniard  wantonly  set  his  hound 
upon  one  of  the  principal  natives,  and  the  Indian  was 


16  SANTO  DOMINGO 

torn  to  pieces,  whereupon  the  chief,  indignant  at  his 
friend's  death,  caused  a  boatload  of  Spaniards  to  be 
killed,  thus  giving  Ovando  a  welcome  excuse  for  the 
invasion.  Four  hundred  Spaniards  dealt  death  and 
desolation  throughout  the  region,  pursuing  the  Indians 
into  the  mountains  and  forests  and  sparing  neither 
women  nor  children.  When  at  last  they  captured  and 
hung  an  aged  Indian  woman  revered  as  a  prophetess, 
the  terrified  aborigines  sued  for  peace  and  agreed  to  pay 
a  heavy  tribute.  A  fortress  was  erected  at  Higuey,  but 
the  conduct  of  the  Spanish  garrison  was  so  outrageous 
that  the  Indians  in  desperation  again  rose,  and  killed 
every  Spaniard  in  the  district.  Ovando  then  began  a 
war  of  extermination  and  the  Indians  were  killed  off 
by  thousands.  Cotubanama  resisted  heroically  but  in 
vain,  and  after  being  beaten  in  a  number  of  desperate 
battles  he  withdrew  to  the  island  of  Saona,  southeast  of 
Santo  Domingo.  Here  he  was  surprised  and  captured 
by  the  Spaniards,  his  remaining  warriors  mercilessly 
shot  and  he  himself  taken  to  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo 
and  hung.  With  his  death  the  island  was  thoroughly 
pacified,  though  at  a  bloody  cost,  and  the  conquest 
proper  ended. 

On  August  13,  1504,  Columbus  once  more  arrived 
in  Santo  Domingo.  On  his  ill-fated  fourth  voyage  he 
had  been  shipwrecked  in  Jamaica  and  one  of  his  men 
crossed  the  ocean  in  an  open  boat  to  solicit  aid  of 
Ovando.  The  latter,  after  dallying  for  months,  finally 
yielded  to  the  murmurings  of  the  colony  and  sent  for 
the  Discoverer.  He  received  Columbus  well,  but  sub- 
jected him  to  humiliation  by  arbitrarily  liberating  a 
mutineer  imprisoned  by  the  admiral.  Disappointed 
and  sad,  the  great  navigator  left  the  shores  of  the  island 
he  loved  and  returned  to  Spain  where  his  death  occurred 
two  years  later. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  17 

The  golden  age  of  the  colony  was  now  at  hand. 
Ovando  built  up  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo,  con- 
structed forts  and  other  defenses,  and  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  most  of  its  public  buildings.  Fine  private 
residences  and  great  churches  and  convents  were 
erected.  Sugar-cane  was  introduced  in  1506  and  gave 
rich  returns,  the  production  of  the  gold  mines  continued 
to  increase,  and  cattle  raising  brought  large  profits. 
The  Indians  were  dying  out  under  the  rigorous  treat- 
ment, and  others  were  imported  from  the  surrounding 
islands  under  the  pretense  of  converting  them  to 
Christianity;  and  when  these  also  succumbed,  the  im- 
portation of  negroes  from  Africa  was  commenced. 
About  1508  the  island  began  to  be  called  Santo  Do- 
mingo, but  for  almost  three  centuries  royal  decrees 
continued  to  refer  to  it  as  Espanola.  So  flourishing  was 
its  state  at  this  time  that  thirteen  of  its  towns  were 
granted  coats  of  arms  and  three  were  declared  cities. 
The  colony  was  and  for  many  years  continued  to  be  a 
starting  point  for  voyages  of  discovery  and  conquest 
in  the  islands  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea. 

After  the  death  of  Christopher  Columbus  his  son 
Diego  made  fruitless  efforts  to  recover  the  honors  of 
which  his  father  had  been  despoiled,  but  it  was  not 
until  he  married  Maria  de  Toledo,  the  beautiful  niece 
of  the  Duke  of  Alba,  that  he  met  with  partial  success, 
probably  more  because  of  the  influence  of  his  wife's 
family  than  because  of  the  justice  of  his  claims.  In 
1509  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Santo  Domingo  to 
succeed  Ovando  and  arrived  in  the  colony  with  his 
wife,  his  uncles,  and  a  brilliant  suite. 

Diego  Columbus  inaugurated  his  administration  with 
a  splendor  till  then  unknown  in  the  new  world,  estab- 
lishing a  kind  of  vice-regal  court.  He  built  the  castle 


1 8  SANTO  DOMINGO 

of  which  the  ruins  are  still  to  be  seen  near  the  San 
Diego  gate  in  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  which 
in  its  glory  must  have  been  an  imposing  structure. 
Unfortunately  many  persons  transferred  to  the  son  the 
hatred  they  had  borne  the  father  and  he  found  his 
plans  balked.  Intending  to  carry  into  effect  the  royal 
dispositions  relative  to  the  release  of  the  Indians  from 
slavery  he  incurred  the  hostility  of  the  planters  and 
when  he  desisted  owing  to  their  opposition,  he  was  at- 
tacked by  the  friars.  Complaints  poured  in  upon  King 
Ferdinand;  the  accusation  most  calculated  to  arouse 
the  suspicious  monarch's  fears  was  that  the  second 
admiral,  as  Diego  Columbus  was  called,  harbored  the 
intention  of  proclaiming  himself  sovereign  of  Santo 
Domingo.  Ferdinand  accordingly  instituted  the  au- 
diencia  or  high  court  of  justice  of  Santo  Domingo, 
which  was  invested  with  a  comprehensive  jurisdiction, 
being  authorized  to  hear  appeals  even  from  decisions 
of  the  governor,  whose  powers  were  thus  materially 
curtailed. 

This  circumstance,  as  well  as  a  new  distribution  of 
the  Indians,  made  over  the  head  of  the  governor,  in- 
duced Diego  Columbus  to  return  to  Spain  in  1515  in 
order  to  defend  his  interests.  During  the  term  of  the 
two  governors  who  succeeded  him,  various  dispositions 
were  made  for  the  protection  of  the  natives  whose 
numbers  were  rapidly  diminishing  notwithstanding 
importations  from  the  other  islands  and  from  South 
America.  The  only  result  of  these  orders  was  a  change 
of  masters;  for  when  Diego  Columbus  returned  as 
governor  in  1520,  he  found  the  Indians  exploited  by  the 
priests  and  officers  of  the  crown  to  whom  they  had  been 
intrusted  ostensibly  for  religious  instruction,  while  the 
mine-owners  and  planters  now  employed  negro  slaves. 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  return  of  the  second 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  19 

admiral  began  the  insurrection  of  a  young  Indian 
cacique  known  as  Enrique.  This  noble  Indian,  a  rela- 
tive of  Anacaona,  had  been  converted  to  Christianity 
and  educated  by  the  Spaniards,  but  was  nevertheless 
enslaved  in  one  of  the  "repartimientos,"  or  distribu- 
tions. His  wife  having  been  gravely  offended  by  the 
Spaniard  to  whom  they  were  assigned,  he  retired  to 
the  almost  inaccessible  mountains  in  the  center  of  the 
island,  and  many  of  the  remaining  natives  fled  to  join 
him.  Efforts  to  dislodge  him  were  in  vain  and  negotia- 
tions only  elicited  from  him  the  promise  to  act  on  the 
defensive  alone,  which  was  equivalent  to  an  indefinite 
truce.  The  number  of  negro  slaves  had  in  the  mean- 
time increased,  and  the  treatment  given  them  was  as 
harsh  as  that  which  had  been  accorded  the  aborigines. 
As  a  result  an  insurrection,  the  first  negro  uprising  in 
the  new  world,  began  near  Santo  Domingo  City  on 
December  27,  1522.  Several  Spaniards  were  murdered, 
but  the  troops  overpowered  the  mutineers  and  a  number 
were  hung. 

Diego  Columbus  continued  in  his  efforts  to  promote 
the  welfare  of  the  colony,  but  became  involved  in  a 
quarrel  with  the  royal  audiencia  and  found  himself 
obliged  in  March,  1524,  to  return  to  Spain  where  he  died 
two  years  later.  The  new  governor,  Bishop  Sebastian 
Ramirez  de  Fuenleal,  was  appointed  president  of  the 
royal  court,  and  the  offices  of  governor  and  president 
of  the  court  were  thenceforth  consolidated.  Both  he 
and  his  successor  used  their  best  efforts  to  promote 
immigration  into  the  colony  which  was  beginning  to 
suffer  on  account  of  the  draughts  of  men  that  left  for 
the  mainland.  An  army  was  dispatched  against  the 
insurgent  chief  Enrique  who  still  menaced  the  tran- 
quility  of  the  colonists  from  his  mountain  fastnesses. 
When  it  was  found  impossible  to  reach  him,  peaceful 


20  SANTO  DOMINGO 

methods  were  employed.  Negotiations  were  opened, 
and  a  treaty  of  peace  signed  in  1533,  on  an  island  in 
the  beautiful  lake  still  known  as  Lake  Enriquillo.  By 
this  treaty  the  Indians,  now  reduced  to  not  more  than 
4000  in  number,  were  freed  from  slavery  and  assigned 
lands  in  Boya,  in  the  mountains  to  the  northeast  of 
Santo  Domingo  City.  From  this  time  forward  there 
is  no  further  mention  of  the  Indians  in  the  island's 
history;  they  disappeared  completely  by  dying  out  and 
by  assimilation. 


CHAPTER  II 

HISTORICAL    SKETCH. COLONIAL    VICISSITUDES. 1533 

TO  1801 

Decline  of  the  colony. — English  attacks  on  Santo  Domingo  City. — Settle- 
ment of  Tortuga  by  freebooters. — French  settlements  in  western  Santo 
Domingo. — Border  wars. — Cession  of  western  coast  to  France. — Return 
of  prosperity. — Effect  of  French  revolution. — Negro  uprising  in  French 
Santo  Domingo. — Rise  of  Toussaint  1'Ouverture. — Cession  of  Spanish 
Santo  Domingo  to  France. — Evacuation  by  Spain. 

Within  forty  years  after  its  discovery  Santo  Domingo 
had  passed  the  zenith  of  its  glory.  The  vast  and 
wealthy  countries  discovered  and  conquered  on  the 
mainland  of  America  absorbed  the  attention  of  col- 
onists and  of  the  government,  and  Santo  Domingo 
quickly  sank  to  a  position  of  economic  and  political 
insignificance.  So  little  importance  was  given  the 
island  by  chroniclers  during  the  ensuing  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  and  so  few  are  the  records  remaining, 
that  not  even  the  names  of  all  the  governors  and  the 
periods  of  their  rule  can  be  accurately  determined.  The 
colony  barely  existed,  the  monotony  of  its  life  was 
interrupted  only  by  occasional  attacks  or  menaces  of 
attacks  by  pirates  or  other  foes. 

Every  effort  was  made  to  prevent  decay.  Decrees 
were  issued  forbidding  emigration  or  the  recruiting  of 
troops  for  expeditions  of  discovery,  but  they  were 
evaded.  Thus  Louis  Columbus,  the  grandson  of  the 
Discoverer  and  one  of  the  most  influential  men  of  the 
colony,  fitted  out  an  expedition  against  Veragua. 
African  slaves  continued  to  be  imported  to  take  the 


22  SANTO  DOMINGO 

place  of  the  exterminated  Indians,  but  as  their  importa- 
tion was  expensive  the  mines  were  abandoned  and  the 
number  of  sugar  estates  declined.  For  the  greater  part 
of  the  period  from  1533  to  1556  the  government  was 
in  the  hands  of  an  energetic  man,  Licentiate  Alonso 
de  Fuenmayor,  Bishop  of  Santo  Domingo  and  La 
Vega,  and  later  first  Archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo. 
He  pushed  to  a  conclusion  the  work  on  the  cathedral 
and  other  religious  edifices  then  building,  repaired  the 
edifices  belonging  to  the  state  and  constructed  the  walls 
and  bastions  which  still  surround  the  city.  He  was  able 
to  ward  off  the  attacks  of  corsairs,  who  multiplied  in 
West  Indian  waters  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1561  the 
Spanish  Government  forbade  vessels  to  travel  to  and 
from  the  new  world  except  under  convoy. 

In  1564  the  cities  of  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros  and 
Concepcion  de  la  Vega  were  completely  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  and  the  few  remaining  inhabitants  re- 
established the  towns  at  short  distances  from  the 
original  sites.  The  entire  intercourse  of  the  colony 
with  Spain  was  reduced  to  two  or  three  caravels  a  year 
and  the  revenues  sank  so  low  that  the  salaries  of  state 
officials  were  paid  and  continued  to  be  paid  for  over 
two  hundred  years,  from  the  treasury  of  Mexico. 

The  year  1586  was  marked  by  the  capture  of  Santo 
Domingo  City  by  the  noted  English  navigator,  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  during  the  celebrated  cruise  on  which  he 
took  the  strongest  towns  on  the  Spanish  main.  On  the 
morning  of  January  n,  1586,  the  inhabitants  of  Santo 
Domingo  City  were  thrown  into  consternation  at  seeing 
eighteen  foreign  vessels  in  the  roadstead,  in  a  line  which 
stretched  from  Torrecilla  Point  to  the  slaughterhouse. 
To  the  joy  of  the  people  the  fleet  set  sail  for  the  west, 
but  their  joy  was  short  lived,  for  the  next  morning 
messengers  arrived  with  the  news  that  the  enemy  had 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  23 

landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Jaina  River  and  was  march- 
ing on  the  city.  Preparations  were  made  for  defense, 
but  terror  gained  the  upper  hand  and  soon  the  civil  and 
religious  authorities,  the  monks  and  nuns  and  the 
entire  population  were  fleeing  in  confusion  on  foot,  in 
carts  and  in  canoes,  leaving  their  belongings  behind. 
Some  one  hundred  and  fifty  men  remained  to  dispute 
the  passage  of  Lieutenant-General  Carliell  who  ap- 
peared at  the  head  of  a  thousand  men.  They  were 
quickly  dispersed  by  the  invaders  who  entered  the  gates 
with  little  loss  and  proceeded  to  the  plaza  where  they 
encamped.  For  twenty-five  days  Drake  held  the  de- 
serted city,  carrying  on  negotiations  meanwhile  for  its 
ransom.  When  these  flagged  he  ordered  the  gradual 
destruction  of  the  town  and  every  morning  for  eleven 
days  a  number  of  buildings  were  burned  and  demol- 
ished, a  work  of  some  difficulty  on  account  of  the 
solidity  of  the  houses.  Not  quite  one-third  of  the  city 
was  so  destroyed  when  the  residents  paid  a  ransom 
of  25,000  ducats,  about  $30,000,  for  the  remainder. 
Drake  thereupon  embarked,  carrying  with  him  the 
bronze  cannon  of  the  fort  and  whatever  of  value  he 
found  in  the  churches  and  private  houses.  He  also 
ordered  the  hanging  of  several  friars,  held  by  him  as 
prisoners,  in  retaliation  for  the  murder  of  a  negro  boy 
whom  he  had  sent  with  a  flag  of  truce. 

Seventy  years  later  Santo  Domingo  was  again  at- 
tacked by  English  forces,  this  time  with  the  object  of 
making  a  permanent  landing.  Oliver  Cromwell  after 
declaring  war  against  Spain  sent  a  fleet  to  the  West 
Indies  under  the  command  of  Admiral  William  Penn, 
having  on  board  an  army  of  9000  men.  The  fleet  ap- 
peared off  Santo  Domingo  City  on  May  14,  1655,  and  a 
landing  was  effected  in  two  bodies,  the  advance  guard 
under  Col.  Buller  going  ashore  at  the  mouth  of  the 


24  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Jaina  River  while  the  main  body  under  General  Ven- 
ables  disembarked  at  Najayo,  much  further  down  the 
coast.  Buller  met  with  strong  resistance  at  Fort  San 
Geronimo  and  was  forced  to  retire  to  Venables'  in- 
trenchments.  The  united  English  forces  made  several 
attempts  to  march  on  the  capital,  but  fell  into  am- 
buscades and  sustained  heavy  losses.  Despairing  of 
success,  the  fleet  and  army  left  the  island  on  June  3 
and  proceeded  to  Jamaica,  which  they  captured. 

The  rovers  of  the  sea  and  the  restrictive  trade  reg- 
ulations imposed  by  the  Spanish  government,  which 
limited  trade  with  the  new  world  to  the  single  port  of 
Seville  in  Spain,  made  development  of  the  island's 
commerce  impossible.  The  trade  restrictions  had  the 
effect  of  encouraging  a  brisk  contraband  traffic  with 
Dutch  vessels  on  the  north  coast,  to  stop  which  the 
Spanish  government  adopted  the  incredible  expedient 
of  shutting  up  every  port  except  Santo  Domingo  City 
and  ordering  the  destruction  of  the  north  coast  towns. 
Puerto  Plata,  Monte  Cristi  and  two  villages  on  the 
coast  of  what  is  now  Haiti  were  thus  destroyed  in  1606 
and  the  inhabitants  transferred  to  towns  almost  in  the 
center  of  the  island,  where  they  were  far  removed  from 
temptation  to  smuggle.  The  measure  temporarily 
stopped  contraband  trade  on  the  north  coast,  but 
destroyed  all  legitimate  trade  in  that  region,  trans- 
formed the  coast  into  a  desert  and  furnished  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  settlement  of  the  buccaneers  in  the  north- 
west. 

The  English,  French  and  Dutch,  in  resisting  Spain's 
claim  to  sole  trading  rights  in  the  new  world,  authorized 
the  fitting  out  of  privateers  that  often  degenerated  into 
pirates.  The  bays  and  inlets  of  the  coast  of  Santo 
Domingo  became  favorite  resorts  for  such  ships.  The 
depot  of  the  corsairs  on  the  island  of  St.  Christopher 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  2$ 

having  been  destroyed  by  the  Spaniards  in  1630,  a 
number  of  refugees  sought  shelter  on  the  island  of 
Tortuga,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Haiti.  Some  of 
them  began  to  cultivate  the  soil,  others  took  to  hunting 
wild  cattle  on  the  mainland  of  Haiti,  while  others  in- 
dulged in  piracy.  Tortuga  soon  became  the  busy 
headquarters  of  reckless  freebooters  of  all  nations,  who 
here  fitted  out  daring  expeditions  and  returned  to  waste 
their  gains  in  wild  carousals.  In  1638  the  Spanish 
governor  of  Santo  Domingo  made  a  descent  on  the 
island  and  destroyed  the  settlement,  but  most  of  the 
buccaneers  were  absent  at  the  time  and  the  only  result 
of  the  raid  was  to  cause  them  to  organize  under  the 
captaincy  of  an  Englishman  named  Willis.  French 
national  pride  asserted  itself,  however,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  a  French  force  from  St.  Christopher,  the 
English  inhabitants  of  Tortuga,  who  were  in  a  minority, 
were  persuaded  to  leave  for  Jamaica,  and  Tortuga 
thenceforth  continued  under  French  governors. 

In  1648  the  Spaniards  of  Santo  Domingo  made  an- 
other fruitless  attempt  to  expel  the  buccaneers;  but  in 
.1653  the  Spanish  governor,  the  Count  of  Penalva,  col- 
lected a  force  which  caught  the  island  unawares  and 
was  strong  enough  to  overawe  the  inhabitants,  who 
were  permitted  to  leave,  though  abandoning  all  their 
property.  The  Spaniards  left  a  garrison  but  the  per- 
sistent Frenchmen  returned  and  drove  it  out.  In  1664 
the  French  West  India  Company  took  possession, 
established  a  garrison,  and  appointed  as  governor  an 
energetic  man,  D'Ogeron,  under  whom  the  country 
rapidly  advanced  in  prosperity  and  commerce.  With 
the  idea  of  encouraging  permanent  settlement,  D'Og- 
eron had  women  brought  over  from  the  slums  of  Paris 
and  portioned  out  as  wives  to  the  rude  colonists. 

The    rapidly    increasing    population    caused    settle- 


26  SANTO  DOMINGO 

ments  to  be  made  on  the  Haitian  mainland,  and  the 
city  of  Port-de-Paix  was  founded  on  a  beautiful  bay 
opposite  Tortuga.  The  city  flourished  to  such  an  ex- 
tent and  the  advantages  of  settlement  on  the  mainland 
were  so  superior  that  the  settlers  of  Tortuga  gradually 
left  the  smaller  island  and  settled  along  the  Haitian 
coast.  Within  twenty  years  Tortuga  was  practically 
deserted  and  it  so  continues  to  this  day. 

A  better  class  of  people  now  arrived  from  France. 
Families  were  brought  in  from  Anjou  and  Brittany,  and 
the  French  settlements  continued  to  spread  all  the  way 
down  the  western  coast  of  the  island,  the  French  settle- 
ment at  Samana  being  withdrawn.  Slaves  were  im- 
ported from  Africa,  and  in  1678  a  rising  took  place 
among  them,  which  was  easily  put  down.  In  1684  the 
French  government  formally  sent  out  commissioners  to 
provide  for  the  regular  government  of  the  colony,  and 
churches  and  courts  of  justice  were  established. 

The  Spanish  inhabitants  of  Santo  Domingo  mean- 
while made  attack  after  attack  on  the  French,  but  the 
Spanish  colony  was  in  such  reduced  straits  that  no 
extended  efforts  were  possible.  Where  the  French  were 
repulsed  the  Spaniards  were  too  few  numerically  to 
hold  the  territory  and  it  was  soon  reoccupied.  Angered 
at  the  repeated  aggressions,  D'Ogeron  sent  out  an 
expedition  under  Delisle  in  1673,  which  landed  at 
Puerto  Plata  and  marched  inland  to  Santiago.  The 
inhabitants  fled  to  La  Vega  and  only  avoided  the  burn- 
ing of  their  city  by  paying  a  ransom  of  25,000  pesos, 
whereupon  Delisle  returned  to  the  French  colony. 
D'Ogeron  at  this  time  proposed  to  the  French  govern- 
ment the  conquest  of  the  entire  island  for  France,  and 
would  probably  have  attempted  to  carry  out  this 
plan,  had  not  his  death  occurred  shortly  after. 

Cordial  relations  existing  between  France  and  Spain 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  27 

in  1685,  tentative  boundary  agreements  were  made 
between  the  French  and  Spanish  authorities,  but  each 
side  accused  the  other  of  violations  and  the  strife  con- 
tinued as  before.  When  in  1689,  war  broke  out  be- 
tween Spain  and  France,  the  French  governor  organized 
an  expedition  to  invade  the  Spanish  section.  He 
reached  Santiago  where  some  of  his  men  died  after 
consuming  meat  and  wine  found  in  the  deserted  houses. 
Believing  them  poisoned,  he  ordered  the  torch  to  be 
applied  to  the  city  and  retired  after  seeing  it  reduced  to 
ashes.  Admiral  Perez  Caro,  the  Spanish  governor, 
thereupon  made  preparations  for  a  telling  blow  on  the 
French.  The  colony's  militia  and  regular  troops  sent 
by  the  viceroy  of  Mexico  invaded  the  French  section 
and  on  January  21,  1692,  administered  a  crushing 
defeat  on  the  opposing  force  in  the  plain  of  La  Limon- 
ade,  killing  the  French  governor  and  his  principal 
officers.  The  victorious  army  marched  through  the 
French  settlements,  desolating  the  fields  and  putting 
all  prisoners  to  the  sword.  At  the  same  time  a  new 
settlement  the  French  had  made  at  Samana  was  ex- 
terminated. 

The  new  French  governor  found  the  affairs  of  his 
colony  in  very  bad  condition;  but  with  the  assistance  of 
refugees  from  other  islands  he  sent  an  expedition  to 
Jamaica,  from  where  over  3,000  slaves  together  with 
stores  of  indigo  and  other  property  were  carried  off. 
In  retaliation  the  English  and  Spanish  fleets  combined 
and  with  4,000  men  aboard  set  sail  from  Manzanillo 
Bay  in  1695,  and  sacked  and  burned  Cape  Francais  and 
Port-de-Paix,  the  English  carrying  off  all  the  men  they 
took  prisoners  and  the  Spaniards  the  women  and 
children.  Hostilities  were  ended  in  1697  by  the  peace  of 
Ryswick  by  which  Spain  recovered  territory  conquered 
from  her  by  the  French  and  ceded  the  western  part  of 


28  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  island  of  Santo  Domingo  to  France.  The  occupa- 
tion of  the  western  coast  by  France,  so  long  resented  as 
an  intrusion,  was  thus  formally  recognized. 

The  French  colony  immediately  entered  upon  an 
era  of  prosperity  which  soon  made  it  the  richest  country 
of  the  West  Indies.  Great  plantations  of  tobacco, 
indigo,  cacao,  coffee  and  sugar  were  established.  The 
country  came  to  be  known  as  the  paradise  of  the  West 
Indies  and  the  wealth  of  the  planters  became  proverbial. 
The  grave  defect  was  that  this  prosperity  was  built  on 
the  false  foundation  of  slavery.  In  1754  the  popula- 
tion numbered  14,000  whites,  4000  free  mulattoes  and 
172,000  negroes. 

The  Spanish  colony  on  the  other  hand  sank  lower 
than  ever.  Practically  abandoned  by  the  mother 
country,  there  was  no  commerce  beyond  a  little  contra- 
band and  only  the  most  indispensable  agriculture,  the 
inhabitants  devoting  themselves  almost  entirely  to 
cattle  raising.  The  ports  were  the  haunts  of  pirates, 
and  a  number  of  Dominicans  also  became  corsairs. 
By  the  year  1730  the  entire  country  held  but  6000 
inhabitants,  of  whom  about  500  lived  in  the  ruined 
capital  and  the  remaining  urban  population  was  dis- 
seminated among  the  vestiges  of  Cotui,  Santiago,  Azua, 
Banica,  Monte  Plata,  Bayaguana,  La  Vega,  Higuey  and 
Seibo.  Such  was  the  poverty  prevailing  that  a  ma- 
jority of  the  people  went  in  rags;  and  the  arrival  of  the 
ship  from  Mexico,  which  brought  the  salaries  of  the 
civil  officials  and  the  military,  was  hailed  with  the 
joyful  ringing  of  church  bells. 

To  how  great  an  extent  this  depression  was  due  to 
trade  restrictions  is  evident  from  the  circumstance  that 
when  in  1740  several  ports  were  opened  to  foreign  com- 
merce there  was  an  immediate  change  for  the  better. 
Agriculture  expanded,  exports  and  imports  increased, 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  29 

money  circulated,  the  cost  of  the  necessaries  of  life 
fell,  the  population  rapidly  increased  and  many  new 
towns  sprang  up.  According  to  an  ecclesiastical  census 
the  population  had  in  1785  advanced  to  152,640  in- 
habitants. Of  these  only  30,000  were  slaves,  owing  to 
the  Spanish  laws  which  made  it  easy  for  a  slave  to 
purchase  his  freedom.  Many  of  the  freemen  were 
negroes  or  mulattoes. 

In  1751  the  colony  was  visited  by  a  severe  hurricane, 
which  caused  the  Ozama  to  leave  its  banks,  and  by  a 
destructive  earthquake  which  overthrew  the  cities  of 
Azua  and  Seibo  and  did  much  damage  to  the  church 
buildings  of  Santo  Domingo.  Azua  and  Seibo  were  re- 
established on  their  present  sites.  Another  earthquake 
in  1770  destroyed  several  towns  in  the  French  part  of 
the  island. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  century  the  boundary 
between  the  French  and  Spanish  colonies  of  Santo 
Domingo  had  been  a  source  of  constant  friction  and 
bickerings.  A  preliminary  agreement  had  been  made 
in  1730,  but  in  1776  a  permanent  treaty  was  drafted,  it 
was  ratified  at  Aranjuez  in  1777,  and  the  boundary  was 
marked  with  stone  monuments. 

When  the  French  revolution  broke  out  in  1789  both 
the  Spanish  and  French  colonies  of  Santo  Domingo  were 
enjoying  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  In  the  French 
colony  there  were  about  30,000  whites,  and  the  haughty 
white  planters  were  wont  to  indulge  in  every  form  of 
luxury  and  sybaritic  pleasure;  the  negro  slaves,  whose 
number  had  grown  to  almost  half  a  million,  were  sub- 
jected to  the  most  barbarous  ill-treatment;  and  a  class 
of  about  30,000  ambitious  free  mulattoes  had  arisen, 
many  of  whom  where  cultured  and  wealthy,  but  who 
were  all  rigidly  excluded  from  participation  in  public 
affairs.  It  was  evident  that  but  a  spark  was  needed  to 


30  SANTO  DOMINGO 

produce  what  might  turn  out  to  be  a  general  con- 
flagration. 

The  spark  came  in  the  formation  of  the  National 
Assembly  in  France  and  its  declaration  of  the  rights  of 
man.  The  mulattoes  at  once  petitioned  the  National 
Assembly  for  civil  and  political  rights,  which  were  in 
1790  equivocally  denied  and  in  1791  finally  granted 
them.  The  whites  resisted  the  government  decrees 
and  uprisings  began.  The  first  of  these  was  a  revolt  of 
the  mulattoes  under  Oge,  which  was  quickly  sup- 
pressed. Oge  fled  to  Spanish  Santo  Domingo,  but  was 
surrendered  by  the  Spaniards  on  condition  that  his  life 
be  spared,  a  promise  that  was  not  kept  for  he  was 
publicly  broken  on  the  wheel.  Jean  Francois,  another 
mulatto,  then  raised  an  insurrection  of  the  negroes  in 
the  north,  marching  on  Cape  Francais,  burning  and 
murdering,  with  the  body  of  a  white  infant  carried  on  a 
spear-head  at  the  head  of  his  troops.  His  forces  were 
defeated  by  the  whites,  who  commenced  an  indis- 
criminate slaughter  of  their  victims.  The  negroes 
thereupon  rose  in  every  direction  and  the  paradise  of 
the  West  Indies  became  a  hell.  The  great  plantation 
houses  were  burned,  the  wide  estates  desolated,  white 
women  were  ravished  and  murdered  and  white  men 
put  to  death  with  horrible  tortures,  while  the  liberated 
slaves  indulged  in  orgies  at  which  the  beverage  was 
rum  mixed  with  human  blood.  It  was  a  fearful  day  of 
reckoning. 

In  1793,  France  went  to  war  with  England  and 
Spain.  The  Spanish  authorities  of  Santo  Domingo 
made  overtures  to  negro  leaders  of  whom  a  number 
entered  the  Spanish  army  as  officers  of  high  rank, 
among  them  Toussaint,  an  intelligent  ex-slave  who 
later  assumed  the  surname  of  POuverture  and  who 
showed  remarkable  military  and  administrative  qual- 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  31 

ities.  The  French  government  sent  commissioners  to 
the  colony,  whose  tactless  handling  of  a  difficult  situa- 
tion fanned  the  flames  of  civil  war.  The  English  at- 
tacked the  colony,  captured  Port-au-Prince,  and 
enlisted  the  aid  of  the  revolted  slaves  in  overrunning 
the  surrounding  country.  When  they  besieged  Port- 
de-Paix  the  French  commander  sent  secret  emissaries 
to  Spanish  Santo  Domingo  and  induced  Toussaint  -to 
desert  from  the  Spanish  ranks  and  with  his  negro  fol- 
lowers help  to  drive  out  the  English.  Killing  the 
Spanish  soldiers  he  found  in  his  way,  Toussaint  went 
to  fight  the  English,  with  such  success  that  in  1797  he 
was  made  general-in-chief  of  all  the  French  troops. 
The  English,  decimated  by  disease,  were  obliged  to 
leave  in  1798  and  sign  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Toussaint 
by  which  the  island  was  recognized  as  an  independent 
and  neutral  state  during  their  war  with  France.  The 
operations  in  Santo  Domingo  are  said  to  have  cost  the 
English  $100,000,000  in  money  and  45,000  lives. 

In  the  meanwhile  border  fights  were  going  on  in 
Spanish  Santo  Domingo  between  Toussaint's  troops 
and  forces  collected  from  the  various  Spanish  posses- 
sions on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  They  continued  until 
1795,  when  by  the  treaty  of  Basle  peace  was  declared 
between  France  and  Spain  and  the  Spanish  colony  of 
Santo  Domingo  was — to  the  dismay  of  its  inhabitants — 
ceded  to  France,  the  whole  island  thus  passing  under 
French  control.  Toward  the  end  of  that  year  part  of 
the  Spanish  troops  and  members  of  religious  orders 
embarked  and  an  emigration  of  the  better  families 
began,  many  taking  their  slaves  with  them.  The 
Spaniards  also  exhumed  what  they  supposed  to  be  the 
remains  of  Columbus  in  the  cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo 
and  carried  them  to  Havana.  One  of  the  terms  of  the 
treaty  was  that  the  colony  should  formally  be  delivered 


32  SANTO  DOMINGO 

when  French  troops  were  sent  to  occupy  it,  but  as  the 
French  were  at  this  time  kept  busy  in  the  western 
portion,  the  Spanish  governor  and  authorities  con- 
tinued to  administer  the  country  for  several  years. 
Little  by  little  troops  and  civil  officials  were  withdrawn 
and  in  1799  the  royal  audiencia  or  high  court  was 
transferred  to  Puerto  Principe,  in  Cuba,  most  of  the 
lawyers  of  the  colony  leaving  at  the  same  time  with 
their  families. 

Toussaint  1'Ouverture  was  now  in  supreme  command 
in  the  west,  though  nominally  holding  under  the 
French  republic.  He  displayed  considerable  ability  in 
promoting  peace,  ordered  the  blacks  to  return  to  work 
and  gave  protection  to  the  whites.  It  was  evident, 
however,  that  he  aimed  to  make  himself  absolute  master 
of  the  whole  island.  Pursuant  to  this  plan  he  called  on 
the  Spanish  governor,  General  Joaquin  Garcia,  to 
surrender  the  Spanish  colony  in  accordance  with  the 
stipulations  of  the  treaty  of  Basle.  Governor  Garcia 
prepared  to  resist,  but  Toussaint  invaded  the  colony 
with  an  army,  was  successful  in  a  skirmish  on  the 
Nizao  River  and  appearing  before  the  capital  protested 
that  he  came  as  a  French  general  in  the  name  of  the 
French  republic.  Garcia  had  no  alternative  but  to 
comply  with  the  negro  chief's  demands.  On  the  27th 
of  January,  1801,  Toussaint  1'Ouverture  entered  the 
capital  with  his  troops  and  formally  took  possession. 
Amid  the  booming  of  cannon  the  Spanish  ensign  was 
lowered  and  the  French  tricolor  raised;  and  Toussaint 
invited  the  authorities  to  the  cathedral  where  a  Te 
Deum  was  chanted.  Governor  Garcia  immediately 
embarked  for  Cuba  with  the  remaining  Spanish  civil 
and  military  authorities. 


CHAPTER  III 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH. CHANGES  OF  GOVERNMENT. l8OI 

TO    1844 

Rule  of  Toussaint  1'Ouverture. — Exodus  of  whites. — Capture  of  Santo 
Domingo  by  French. — War  with  negroes. — Government  of  Ferrand. — 
Incursion  of  Dessalines. — Insurrection  of  Sanchez  Ramirez. — Re- 
establishment  of  Spanish  rule. — Proclamation  of  Colombian  State  of 
Spanish  Haiti. — Conquest  by  Haiti. — Haitian  rule. — Duarte's  con- 
spiracy.— Declaration  of  Independence. 

Toussaint  1'Ouverture's  occupation  of  Santo  Domingo 
occasioned  a  new  exodus  of  white  families  who  were 
fearful  of  what  might  happen  under  negro  rule.  From 
the  French  portion  of  the  island  the  whites  had  been 
emigrating  since  the  first  uprisings;  a  number  had  fled 
into  the  Spanish  colony  and  these  now  also  left.  It  is 
estimated  that  in  the  decade  beginning  with  1795  the 
Spanish  portion  lost  over  40,000  inhabitants,  more  than 
one-third  of  its  population.  Most  of  the  persons  who 
abandoned  the  island  during  these  troublous  times 
settled  in  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and  Venezuela,  where  they 
established  coffee  and  sugar  plantations,  to  the  great 
advantage  of  these  countries.  Some  of  the  most 
prominent  families  of  Cuba  to-day  are  descendants  of 
families  which  left  Santo  Domingo  at  this  time. 

Toussaint  tried  to  stem  the  tide  of  emigration  by 
issuing  conciliatory  proclamations;  but  when  he  found 
his  efforts  in  vain,  it  is  claimed  that  he  conceived  the 
idea  of  a  general  massacre  of  the  whites  remaining  in 
the  capital.  He  ordered  the  entire  population,  without 
distinction  of  age  or  sex  to  gather  on  the  plaza  and  the 


34  SANTO  DOMINGO 

men,  women  and  children  to  be  separated  into  different 
groups,  the  whole  plaza  being  surrounded  by  strong 
forces  of  cavalry.  Appearing  before  the  terrified  people 
Toussaint  declared  slavery  abolished  and  began  to 
walk  up  and  down  and  ask  the  women  in  broken  Span- 
ish whether  they  were  French  or  Spanish,  touching  them 
with  his  cane  in  an  ever  more  insolent  manner.  It  was 
too  much  for  one  high-spirited  young  woman,  who 
commenced  to  upbraid  him  for  daring  to  touch  her.  At 
this  critical  moment  a  severe  storm,  that  had  been 
gathering  since  he  appeared  on  the  plaza,  broke,  and 
Toussaint,  apparently  regarding  it  as  a  sign  of  divine 
disapproval,  ordered  the  children  removed,  then  per- 
mitted the  women  to  retire  and  finally  sent  the  soldiers 
to  their  barracks,  leaving  the  men  to  disperse  of  them- 
selves. 

Toussaint  divided  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island 
into  two  departments,  making  his  brother  Paul  1'Ouver- 
ture  governor  of  the  south  with  headquarters  at  Santo 
Domingo  and  General  Clervaux  governor  of  the  Cibao, 
with  headquarters  at  Santiago.  He  then  made  a  jour- 
ney through  the  country,  being  everywhere  received 
by  the  frightened  inhabitants  with  every  mark  of 
distinction.  Upon  his  return  to  the  French  section  he 
promulgated,  in  July,  1801,  a  constitution  for  the  is- 
land, by  which  he  was  declared  governor  for  life  and 
commander-in-chief,  with  the  right  of  appointing  his 
successor  and  with  an  annual  salary  of  300,00  francs. 
At  the  same  time  he  confiscated  the  property  of  persons 
who  had  emigrated. 

Toussaint's  constitution  was  a  challenge  to  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  who  having  temporarily  made  peace  with 
England,  determined  to  reestablish  French  authority 
in  the  island.  He  accordingly  dispatched  to  Santo 
Domingo  a  fleet  with  a  well-equipped  army  of  25,000 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  35 

men  under  his  brother-in-law,  General  Le  Clerc.  Upon 
arriving  in  Samana  Bay  the  force  was  divided  into 
several  bodies  which  were  to  operate  in  different  parts 
of  the  island.  The  reconquest  of  the  Spanish  part  was 
confided  to  Generals  Kerverseau  and  Ferrand. 

General  Ferrand  landed  in  Monte  Cristi  and  without 
difficulty  took  possession  of  the  Cibao  while  the  colored 
chief,  Clervaux,  knowing  the  hostility  of  the  population 
toward  him,  retired  without  giving  battle.  General 
Kerverseau  took  Samana  by  assault  and  then  sailed  for 
Santo  Domingo  City.  The  negro  Governor  Paul 
1'Ouverture  prepared  to  resist,  but  a  brave  Dominican, 
Colonel  Juan  Baron,  organized  an  insurrectionary  force 
and  placed  himself  in  communication  with  Kerverseau. 
The  first  attempt  at  uprising  was  a  failure,  as  his  plans 
were  betrayed,  and  a  rough  sea  prevented  the  French 
from  landing.  His  enemies  took  the  opportunity  to 
sack  the  town  of  San  Carlos,  outside  the  city  gates,  and 
to  murder  a  number  of  Dominicans.  Baron  gathered 
a  larger  force  and  in  unison  with  Kerverseau  demanded 
the  surrender  of  the  city.  Paul  1'Ouverture  reluctantly 
capitulated  and  the  French  thus  assumed  command  of 
the  Spanish  portion  of  the  island,  with  Kerverseau  as 
governor.  When  Toussaint  heard  of  what  had  occurred 
he  ordered  the  murder  of  a  battalion  of  Dominican 
soldiers  whom  he  had  retained  as  hostages. 

The  war  waged  between  the  French  and  the  blacks 
in  the  old  French  Colony  of  St.  Domingue  was  char- 
acterized by  nameless  atrocities  committed  on  both 
sides.  The  last  vestiges  of  former  prosperity  were 
swept  away  and  the  country  converted  into  a  wilder- 
ness. Toussaint  was  captured  through  treachery  and 
died  in  a  European  prison,  but  yellow  fever  invaded 
the  French  ranks  and  did  great  havoc.  Le  Clerc  died, 
and  Rochambeau,  his  successor,  was  unable,  even  with 


36  SANTO  DOMINGO 

reinforcements,  to  hold  his  own.  England,  again  at 
war  with  France,  impeded  further  reinforcements  and 
actively  assisted  the  insurgent  negroes.  Death  by 
disease  and  wounds  made  the  great  French  army  melt 
away,  and  towards  the  end  of  1803  the  last  remnant  was 
forced  off  the  island.  On  January  I,  1804,  the  negro 
generals  proclaimed  the  island  an  independent  republic 
under  the  name  of  Haiti,  one  of  the  island's  Indian 
names.  Jean  Jacques  Dessalines,  a  rough,  illiterate 
negro,  but  of  indefatigable  energy,  was  made  governor 
for  life,  with  dictatorial  powers.  One  of  his  first  acts 
was  to  order  the  extermination  of  such  whites  as  still 
remained.  Dessalines  a  year  later  assumed  the  title  of 
emperor. 

Ferrand,  the  French  general  in  the  Cibao,  conceived 
the  project  of  disobeying  his  orders  to  evacuate  and  of 
trying  to  hold  Spanish  Santo  Domingo  for  France. 
Finding  that  Kerverseau  was  ready  to  capitulate,  he 
determined  to  assume  command  himself,  feeling  sure 
that  the  French  government  would  approve  his  action, 
if  his  plans  were  successful.  He  therefore  marched  to 
Santo  Domingo  City  and  after  a  few  days'  parleying 
deposed  Kerverseau,  placed  him  aboard  a  vessel  that 
carried  him  to  Mayaguez,  in  Porto  Rico,  and  assumed 
the  governorship. 

Dessalines  did  not  long  keep  him  waiting.  Desiring 
to  extend  his  authority  over  the  whole  island,  and 
angered  by  an  injudicious  decree  of  Ferrand,  which 
permitted  the  enslaving  of  Haitians  of  over  fourteen 
years  found  beyond  their  frontier,  he  invaded  the  coun- 
try with  a  horde  of  25,000  men.  The  population  of  the 
border  towns  fled  before  him  in  terror,  the  very  slaves 
remaining  with  their  masters  rather  than  join  him. 
Victorious  in  an  engagement  on  the  Yaque  river, 
he  laid  siege  to  the  capital  on  March  5,  1805.  In 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  37 

the  meantime  his  lieutenant,  Christophe,  overran  the 
Cibao,  sacking  the  towns  and  committing  horrors. 
Santiago  was  captured  before  the  inhabitants  had  time 
to  flee,  and  a  large  number  were  murdered  by  the 
savage  invaders.  The  members  of  the  municipal 
council  were  hung,  naked,  on  the  balcony  of  the  city 
hall;  the  people  who  had  sought  refuge  in  the  main 
church  were  put  to  the  sword  and  their  bodies  muti- 
lated; and  the  priest  was  burnt  alive  in  the  church,  the 
furniture  of  the  edifice  constituting  his  funeral  pyre. 
Santo  Domingo  City  had  been  placed  in  a  state  of 
defense  and  artillery  mounted  on  the  tower  of  Mercedes 
church  and  the  roofs  of  the  San  Francisco  and  Jesuit 
churches.  The  garrison  consisted  of  some  2,000  men, 
but  to  maintain  these  and  the  6,000  inhabitants  of  the 
city  as  well  as  the  refugees  there  were  only  limited  sup- 
plies on  hand.  Food  quickly  ran  low  when,  providen- 
tially, a  French  fleet  appeared  before  the  city.  The 
admiral,  who  thought  the  entire  island  abandoned  by 
the  French,  was  delighted  to  find  the  French  flag  still 
flying  and  gladly  rendered  assistance.  A  desperate 
sortie  was  made  on  March  28,  the  twenty-third  day  of 
the  siege,  with  such  success  that  Dessalines  precip- 
itately retired,  abandoning  his  stores.  The  main  body 
of  the  Haitians  retreated  by  way  of  the  Cibao,  the 
others  through  the  south,  all  devastating  the  country 
as  far  as  they  could.  Azua,  San  Jose  de  las  Matas, 
Monte  Plata,  Cotui,  San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  La 
Vega,  Santiago  and  Monte  Cristi  were  reduced  to 
ashes.  In  Moca  500  inhabitants,  deceived  by  the 
promises  of  Christophe,  returned  from  their  hiding 
places  in  the  hills  and  assembled  for  divine  service  in 
the  parish  church,  where  they  were  butchered  by  the 
negro  soldiers.  Jn  La  Vega  and  Santiago  the  Haitian 
troops  made  prisoners  of  numerous  families,  aggre- 


38  SANTO  DOMINGO 

gating  900  persons  among  men,  women  and  children  in 
La  Vega  and  probably  more  in  Santiago,  and  forced 
them  to  accompany  the  army  to  northern  Haiti,  where 
they  were  kept  in  captivity,  working  practically  as 
slaves  for  their  captors,  for  four  years.  The  march  was 
full  of  horrors  for  the  poor  prisoners,  who  were  pro- 
hibited from  wearing  hats  or  shoes  and  were  brutally 
treated  by  their  guards. 

As  a  civil  administrator  Ferrand  did  excellent  work. 
He  encouraged  the  resettlement  of  the  abandoned 
fields,  persuaded  emigrated  families  to  return,  estab- 
lished schools  and  began  to  build  water-works  for  the 
capital,  a  work  which  he  nearly  completed,  but  which 
was  abandoned  by  his  successors  and  has  never  been 
realized  in  the  century  that  has  since  transpired. 
Napoleon  on  hearing  of  Ferrand 's  conduct  not  only 
approved  everything  he  had  done  but  sent  him  the 
cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  financial  assistance. 
Ferrand  was  especially  impressed  with  the  importance 
of  Samana  Bay  and  made  plans  for  a  city  to  be  located 
west  of  the  town  of  Samana,  to  which  he  intended 
to  give  the  name  of  Napoleon.  The  peaceful  condi- 
tions to  which  the  country  returned  were  only  troubled 
by  British  vessels  which  occasionally  attempted  to 
establish  blockades.  On  February  6,  1806,  a  British 
squadron  of  eight  vessels  under  Sir  John  Duckworth 
badly  defeated  a  French  squadron,  also  of  eight  vessels, 
in  a  hotly  contested  fight  off  Point  Palenque  to  the 
southwest  of  Santo  Domingo  City. 

Although  Ferrand  was  personally  liked,  discontent 
began  to  brew  in  the  country.  The  inhabitants  were 
loyal  to  Spain  and  chafed  under  foreign  rule;  many  be- 
lieved there  was  danger  of  Haitian  invasion  so  long  as 
the  French  remained;  certain  tax  exactions  stirred  up 
animosity;  and  the  stories  of  Spain's  resistance  to 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  39 

Napoleon's  aggressions  inflamed  the  spirits  of  the  lead- 
ing men.  Conspiracies  ensued,  fomented  principally 
by  a  Cotui  planter  named  Juan  Sanchez  Ramirez,  who 
had  emigrated  in  1803,  but  returned  after  four  years  of 
exile,  and  the  Spanish  flag  was  formally  raised  in  Seibo 
in  October,  1808.  Ferrand  immediately  set  out  to 
quell  the  uprising  and  on  November  7,  1808,  met 
Sanchez  Ramirez  at  Palo  Hincado,  about  two  miles 
west  of  Seibo.  He  was  vigorously  attacked  by  the 
revolutionists,  his  native  troops  deserted,  and  his  other 
troops  were  cut  to  pieces.  Seeing  that  all  was  lost  and 
that  all  his  work  was  ruined,  Ferrand  blew  out  his 
brains  with  a  pistol. 

The  revolutionists  received  assistance  from  the 
governor-general  of  Porto  Rico  and  from  their  former 
enemy  Christophe,  who  had  made  himself  king  of 
northern  Haiti;  a  British  squadron  took  Samana,  the 
only  post  held  by  the  French  outside  of  Santo  Domingo 
City,  and  raised  the  Spanish  flag;  and  Sanchez  Ramirez 
laid  siege  to  the  capital,  where  the  French  general 
Barquier  had  assumed  command,  while  British  ves- 
sels blockaded  it  by  sea.  The  siege  lasted  almost  nine 
months,  during  which  the  besieged  suffered  greatly 
from  want  of  provisions,  being  reduced  to  eating  dogs 
and  cats,  and  the  surrounding  country  was  devastated 
by  sorties  and  foraging  parties.  The  severest  fighting 
took  place  about  San  Geronimo  castle,  on  the  shore 
three  miles  west  of  the  city,  which  was  taken  and  re- 
taken. In  the  sixth  and  seventh  months  of  the  siege 
the  city  was  repeatedly  bombarded  from  land  and  sea, 
but  without  result.  At  length  Sanchez  applied  to  the 
governor  of  Jamaica  and  a  British  force  under  Sir 
Hugh  Lyle  Carmichael  was  sent  to  his  assistance.  It 
landed  at  Palenque  and  took  up  a  position  in  San 
Carlos.  A  general  assault  had  been  determined  upon, 


40  SANTO  DOMINGO 

when  the  brave  little  defender  of  the  city,  realizing 
the  hopelessness  of  further  resistance,  agreed  to  capit- 
ulate to  the  English.  On  July  9,  1809,  the  French  flag 
was  lowered  and  the  country  again  became  a  depend- 
ency of  Spain,  and  in  1814  Spain's  dominion  was  con- 
firmed by  the  treaty  of  Paris. 

Spain  had  been  busy  fighting  the  French  within  her 
own  borders,  and  when  normal  conditions  were  re- 
stored had  her  hands  full  in  keeping  order  and  in  trying 
to  bring  her  revolting  colonies  of  America  back  to 
obedience.  She  had  little  time  for  affairs  in  Santo 
Domingo,  and  did  nothing  to  ameliorate  conditions. 
The  colony  was  left  to  vegetate  in  absolute  poverty. 
This  second  Spanish  era  came  to  be  known  as  the 
period  of  "Espafia  boba,"  "stupid  Spain,"  as  the  home 
government  remained  so  indifferent  to  the  colony's 
affairs.  The  only  redeeming  feature  was  the  return  of  a 
number  of  exiled  families.  Sanchez  Ramirez,  who  had 
been  proclaimed  governor-general,  was  confirmed  in 
the  office  and  held  the  same  until  his  death  in  1811, 
being  succeeded  by  Spanish  military  officers. 

In  the  first  years  of  the  new  Spanish  colony  there  was 
an  undefined  attempt  at  uprising  on  the  part  of  a  few 
white  hotheads,  and  an  attempt  to  incite  the  slaves 
against  their  masters  on  the  part  of  a  few  black  ones, 
but  in  both  cases  the  ringleaders  were  captured  and 
put  to  death.  The  great  struggle  for  independence  in 
South  America  gradually  influenced  the  minds  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Santo  Domingo;  Bolivar's  brief  visit  to 
Haiti  also  had  its  effect,  and  secret  separatist  societies 
began  to  be  founded.  In  the  beginning  of  1821  a  con- 
spiracy was  discovered  and  numerous  arrests  made. 
Plotting  continued  nevertheless,  stimulated  by  a  prom- 
inent lawyer,  Jose  Nunez  de  Caceres,  who  dreamed  of 
making  the  country  a  state  of  Bolivar's  Colombian 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  41 

Republic.  On  the  night  of  November  30,  1821,  the 
conspiracy  culminated  in  an  uprising  in  the  capital; 
most  of  the  troops  had  been  won  over  to  the  cause  of 
independence  and  offered  no  resistance;  the  rest  were 
taken  by  surprise;  and  the  revolutionists  without 
difficulty  made  themselves  masters  of  the  gateway 
"Puerta  del  Conde"  and  of  the  other  gates  and  forts. 
The  Spanish  governor  was  placed  under  arrest  and  put 
aboard  a  vessel  sailing  for  Europe,  and  the  Colombian 
flag  was  raised.  Public  proclamation  was  made  of  the 
independent  and  sovereign  State  of  Spanish  Haiti, 
affiliated  with  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  and  Jose 
Nunez  de  Caceres  assumed  the  office  of  political  gover- 
nor and  president  of  the  State,  while  the  provincial 
assembly  became  a  provisional  junta  of  government. 
The  State  of  Spanish  Haiti  lasted  barely  nine  weeks. 
An  emissary  sent  to  Colombia  for  assistance  in  main- 
taining independence  was  unsuccessful.  Another  em- 
issary sent  to  President  Boyer  of  Haiti,  for  the  nego- 
tiation of  a  treaty,  brought  back  the  answer  that 
"the  whole  island  should  constitute  a  single  republic 
under  the  flag  of  Haiti."  For  several  years  Boyer,  a 
dark  mulatto,  who  had  united  Haiti  under  his  rule,  had 
been  endeavoring  to  influence  the  colored  people  on 
the  Spanish  side  of  the  border,  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  activities  of  his  agents  repeatedly  provoked  pro- 
tests from  the  Spanish  governors,  and  he  now  recog- 
nized that  his  opportunity  had  come.  Invading  the 
country  in  the  north  and  south  his  forces  captured  the 
most  important  points.  He  met  with  no  resistance,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  temporary  government  was  en- 
tirely unprepared,  that  the  population  feared  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  horrors  of  1805,  and  that  many  were  in 
sympathy  with  him  while  others  were  indifferent.  On 
February  9,  1822,  Nunez  de  Caceres  was  obliged  to 


42  SANTO  DOMINGO 

deliver  the  keys  of  Santo  Domingo  City  to  the  invader 
and  the  whole  island  came  under  the  dominion  of  Haiti. 

The  twenty-two  years  of  Haitian  rule  marked  a 
period  of  social  and  economic  retrogression  for  the  old 
Spanish  portion  of  the  island.  Most  of  the  whites, 
especially  the  more  prominent  families,  the  principal 
representatives  of  the  community's  wealth  and  culture, 
definitely  abandoned  the  country,  some  immediately 
upon  the  advent  of  the  Haitians,  others  in  1824,  when 
a  hopeless  conspiracy  in  favor  of  a  restoration  of  Spanish 
rule  was  quenched  in  blood,  and  others  in  1830,  when  a 
quixotic  demand  of  the  Spanish  king  for  a  return  of  his 
domain  was  refused  by  Boyer.  The  Haitians,  anxious 
to  eliminate  the  whites,  encouraged  such  emigration 
and  confiscated  the  property  left  by  the  emigrants. 
The  policy  of  the  Haitian  government  was  to  build  up  a 
strong  African  state  in  the  whole  island,  and  in  pur- 
suance of  this  policy  it  emancipated  all  slaves,  col- 
onized Haitian  negroes  on  the  Samana  peninsula  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  Spanish-speaking  territory  and 
brought  in  colored  people  from  the  United  States. 
Some  of  these  remained  in  Puerto  Plata,  others  in 
Santo  Domingo  City,  but  the  larger  number  settled 
on  the  Samana  peninsula,  where  their  descendants  still 
form  the  bulk  of  the  population.  Every  effort  was 
made  to  Haitianize  the  country  by  extending  the 
Haitian  laws,  and  imposing  Haitian  governors.  Repre- 
sentation was  also  accorded  in  the  Haitian  congress. 
In  1825  the  French  government  recognized  the  in- 
dependence of  the  French  part  of  the  island  in  con- 
sideration of  the  payment  of  an  indemnity,  toward 
which  the  Haitians  forced  the  Spanish  part  to  con- 
tribute. 

The  wanton  acts  of  the  Haitian  authorities,  their 
hostility  to  whites  and  lighter  colored  mulattoes,  their 


Historic  Gateway  "La  Puerta  del  Conde,"  Santo  Domingo  City,  where 
the  independence  of  the  Dominican  Republic  was  declared 

Above:  View  from  within  the  city 

Below:  View  from  without,  during  a  revolution 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  43 

opposition  to  the  Spanish  language  and  customs,  and 
their  neglect  of  the  country's  development,  caused 
much  discontent,  and  the  idea  of  separating  from  Haiti 
began  to  be  entertained.  An  enthusiastic  young  man, 
Juan  Pablo  Duarte,  who  had  been  educated  in  Europe, 
in  1838  founded  a  secret  revolutionary  society,  called 
"La  Trinitaria,"  to  work  for  the  country's  independ- 
ence. In  May,  1842,  an  earthquake  destroyed  Santiago 
and  La  Vega,  as  well  as  Cape  Haitien  and  other  towns 
in  the  western  part  of  the  island,  and  with  lesser  earth- 
quakes which  followed  caused  a  panic  throughout  the 
country,  which  in  turn  made  conditions  more  favorable 
for  a  change  of  government. 

In  the  meantime  opposition  to  Boyer  had  spread  in 
Haiti  also,  and  in  1843  gave  rise  to  a  revolution,  as  a 
result  of  which  Boyer  was  driven  from  the  country 
and  Charles  Herard  installed  as  dictator-president. 
Duarte  redoubled  his  activities  for  independence, 
struggling  against  the  opinion  of  many  who  thought 
such  an  aspiration  hopeless,  but  his  plans  were  dis- 
covered and  he  and  others  obliged  to  flee.  His  work 
had  been  well  done,  however;  his  ideas  continued  to 
spread,  and  it  was  determined  to  proclaim  the  inde- 
pendence of  Santo  Domingo  on  February  27,  1844. 
Late  that  night  a  large  group  of  Dominicans  under 
Francisco  del  Rosario  Sanchez  appeared  at  the  prin- 
cipal gateway  of  Santo  Domingo  City,  "Puerta  del 
Conde,"  and  received  the  surrender  of  the  guard,  and 
on  the  following  morning  the  Dominican  flag,  as  de- 
signed by  Duarte,  was  waving  over  the  gate. 

Dessalines,  the  emperor  of  Haiti,  had  adopted  red  and 
blue,  two  of  the  colors  of  the  French  Republic's  flag, 
for  the  flag  of  Haiti,  leaving  out  white,  because  to  this 
hated  color  he  attributed  all  the  misfortunes  of  his 
country  and  his  race.  Duarte  took  the  Haitian  colors, 


44  SANTO  DOMINGO 

arranged  them  in  four  alternate  squares  and  placed  a 
white  cross  in  the  center  to  signify  the  union  of  the 
races  through  Christianity  and  civilization. 

The  other  points  of  vantage  were  quickly  occupied 
and  the  Haitian  general,  finding  himself  shut  up  in  the 
fort  "La  Fuerza"  without  hope  of  successful  resistance, 
surrendered  and  was  permitted  to  withdraw  with  his 
officers.  On  the  same  day  or  within  a  few  days  after- 
ward the  flag  of  the  new  republic  was  raised  in  every 
town  of  the  old  Spanish  colony  of  Santo  Domingo,  ex- 
cept certain  towns  in  the  west  which  are  still  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Haitians,  and  the  country  entered  upon  the 
period  of  independence. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HISTORICAL     SKETCH. FIRST     REPUBLIC     AND     SPANISH 

ANNEXATION. 1844   TO    1865 

Constitution  of  the  government. — Santana's  first  administration. — Wars 
with  the  Haitians. — Administration  of  Jimenez. — Victory  of  Las  Car- 
reras. — Baez'  first  administration. — Santana's  second  administration. — 
Repulse  of  Soulouque. — Baez'  second  administration. — Period  of  the 
two  governments. — Santana's  third  administration. — Annexation  nego- 
tiations.— Annexation  to  Spain. — War  of  the  Restoration. 

Immediately  upon  the  declaration  of  independence  a 
central  council  of  government  was  formed  for  the 
provisional  administration  of  the  country's  affairs. 
The  new  republic  assumed  the  name  of  Dominican 
Republic  and  the  people  were  thenceforth  known  as 
Dominicans.  The  first  business  before  the  central 
council  of  government  was  to  prepare  for  the  defense  of 
the  territory  against  the  Haitian  president,  Herard, 
who  was  advancing  with  an  army  to  reestablish  his 
authority.  An  encounter  took  place  near  Azua,  in 
which  the  Dominican  forces,  under  General  Pedro 
Santana,  were  victorious,  but  instead  of  following  up 
his  victory,  Santana  fell  back  on  Bani  and  permitted 
the  enemy  to  occupy  Azua.  In  the  meantime  another 
Haitian  army  was  advancing  in  the  north.  In  the 
midst  of  his  operations  Herard  was  interrupted  by  the 
news  of  a  revolutionary  movement  against  him  in 
Haitian  territory,  and  hastily  recalling  his  troops,  re- 
tired to  combat  it,  burning  Azua  and  devastating  the 
country  through  which  he  passed. 

Many  prominent  Dominicans  were  in  doubt  as  to 


46  SANTO  DOMINGO 

whether  the  republic  would  be  able  to  maintain  a  stable 
government  and  resist  the  incursions  of  the  Haitians, 
and  believed  that  the  best  course  for  the  safety  and 
prosperity  of  the  country  would  be  to  seek  the  protec- 
tion of  a  foreign  power.  These  men,  who  came  to  be 
known  as  conservatives  and  who  counted  Santana 
among  their  number,  began  to  spread  their  doctrines 
and  were  bitterly  opposed  by  a  different  element,  calling 
themselves  liberals,  among  whom  were  Duarte,  re- 
turned from  exile,  and  the  members  of  the  central 
council  of  government.  A  number  of  prominent  con- 
servatives were  obliged  to  go  into  hiding  in  order  to 
escape  imprisonment,  and  the  central  council  of  govern- 
ment appointed  Duarte  its  representative  in  the  north 
and  ordered  that  General  Francisco  del  Rosario  Sanchez 
supersede  Santana  in  command  of  the  troops  in  the 
south.  Duarte  was  proclaimed  president  of  the  re- 
public by  the  people  of  the  north,  but  Santana's  soldiers 
refusing  to  recognize  any  other  leader,  marched  on  the 
capital,  which  they  entered  on  July  12,  1844,  and  de- 
posed the  central  council  of  government,  declaring 
Santana  chief  of  state  with  dictatorial  powers.  Thus 
the  unhappy  series  of  revolutions  which  have  done  such 
harm  to  the  Dominican  Republic  was  inaugurated 
within  five  months  after  the  declaration  of  independ- 
ence. 

Santana  organized  a  new  central  council  of  govern- 
ment and  sent  emissaries  to  the  Cibao,  or  northern  part 
of  the  republic,  where  he  won  over  the  army  and  the 
principal  leaders.  Duarte,  Sanchez  and  others  who  had 
risked  their  lives  and  spent  their  fortunes  in  behalf  of 
Dominican  independence  were  arrested,  imprisoned  in 
irons  in  the  ancient  "Tower  of  Homage"  of  Santo 
Domingo  and  exiled  as  traitors  to  their  country! 

A  constitutional  convention  was  called,  which  met  at 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  47 

San  Cristobal  and  drafted  the  first  constitution  of  the 
Republic,  taking  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  as 
a  model.  It  was  promulgated  on  November  6,  1844. 
In  accordance  with  a  provision  of  the  constitution  that 
the  convention  elect  the  president  for  the  first  two 
terms,  General  Santana  was  chosen,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected. General  Pedro  Santana,  who  thus  became  the 
first  constitutional  president,  was  a  rough,  uncouth  and 
uneducated  man,  but  possessed  of  keen  perception  and 
great  personal  bravery.  He  had  a  strong  strain  of 
negro  and  probably  also  of  Indian  blood.  Born  in 
Hincha,  he  had  left  his  native  town  during  the  troubles 
of  the  early  part  of  the  century  and  settled  in  the 
province  of  Seibo,  where  he  acquired  an  ascendency 
over  the  population  that  made  him  a  kind  of  local  demi- 
god. 

Conspiracies  against  Santana's  government  were 
immediately  set  on  foot  by  the  liberals,  but  were  dis- 
covered and  three  ringleaders  were  executed  on  the  first 
anniversary  of  the  Republic's  independence.  In  the 
spring  of  1845  the  first  Congress  met  and  proceeded  to 
organize  the  government. 

In  the  meantime  a  guerilla  warfare  had  been  going  on 
with  the  Haitians  along  the  border,  and  President 
Pierrot,  who  had  overthrown  Herard,  was  preparing  to 
invade  the  Dominican  Republic.  His  two  armies  were 
at  first  successful  and  captured  several  border  towns, 
but  that  which  entered  in  the  south  was  repulsed  at 
Estrelleta,  while  that  which  invaded  the  north  was  de- 
feated at  Beler.  A  small  Haitian  fleet  which  set  out  to 
attack  Puerto  Plata  blundered  on  a  shoal  where  it  was 
left  high  and  dry  and  captured  by  the  Dominicans. 

Steps  were  now  taken  to  secure  the  recognition  of 
the  republic  by  foreign  powers.  The  government  soon 
found  itself  in  financial  difficulties,  as  it  was  expensive 


48  SANTO  DOMINGO 

to  maintain  the  country  in  a  state  of  defense  against 
the  Haitians,  and  an  issue  of  paper  money  without 
sufficient  guarantees  made  matters  worse.  Revolu- 
tionary mutterings  were  heard,  and  though  a  number  of 
leaders  were  shot,  the  public  discontent  grew  greater 
and  more  apparent.  Santana  comprehended  the 
situation  and  determined  to  resign  the  presidency, 
which  he  did  on  August  4,  1848.  The  cabinet  officers 
temporarily  carried  on  the  government  and  called  an 
election,  as  a  result  of  which  General  Manuel  Jimenez, 
who  had  fought  the  Haitians  and  had  been  secretary  of 
war  under  Santana,  was  declared  president,  entering 
upon  office  on  September  8,  1848. 

In  his  efforts  to  face  the  economic  troubles  of  the 
government  Jimenez  disbanded  part  of  the  army  and 
reduced  military  expenses.  The  moment  was  in- 
opportune, for  the  implacable  Haitians,  who  continued 
to  consider  Santo  Domingo  as  Haitian  territory  in 
revolt,  were  preparing  for  another  invasion.  Soulouque, 
who  had  attained  the  presidency  of  the  black  republic, 
made  a  sudden  incursion  and  marched  victoriously  as 
far  as  Azua.  The  Dominican  government  observed  a 
vacillating  policy  which  provoked  general  distrust  and 
protests  from  the  friends  of  Santana,  whose  partisans 
in  the  Congress  called  on  him  to  take  command  of  the 
army.  Jimenez  at  first  demurred  but  finally  consented, 
and  Santana,  emerging  from  retirement,  collected  a 
few  hundred  ragged  troops  at  Sabana  Buey,  near  Azua. 
Soulouque  attempted  to  move  eastward  by  way  of  the 
canon  of  El  Numero,  but  was  prevented  by  a  Dominican 
force  under  General  Duverge;  he  then  tried  the  pass  of 
Las  Carreras  and  was  met  and  utterly  defeated  on 
April  21,  1849,  by  General  Santana.  The  Haitians  re- 
treated to  their  own  territory,  burning  Azua  and  other 
towns  on  the  way. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  49 

Quarrels  between  President  Jimenez  and  Congress 
continued  meanwhile,  and  his  opponents  induced  the 
army  to  declare  itself  against  the  president  and  request 
General  Santana  "not  to  lay  down  his  arms  until  a 
government  was  established  which  would  respect  the 
constitution  and  the  laws  and  forever  banish  discord 
from  Dominican  soil."  The  Congress  called  the  pres- 
ident to  appear  before  it,  and  some  of  the  officers  of  his 
staff,  hearing  him  harshly  criticised,  drew  swords  and 
pistols  to  punish  the  offending  congressman,  and  only 
the  energy  of  the  speaker,  Buenaventura  Baez,  averted 
a  bloody  conflict.  Congress  adjourned  to  San  Cristobal, 
the  most  important  towns  of  the  country  rose  against 
the  administration,  and  Santana  laid  siege  to  the  cap- 
ital. After  the  siege  had  lasted  a  week,  and  the  subur- 
ban town  of  San  Carlos  had  been  destroyed  by  fire, 
President  Jimenez  yielded  to  the  arguments  of  the 
British,  French  and  American  consuls  and  agreed  to 
resign  the  presidency  and  leave  the  country  on  a 
British  warship.  Santana  entered  the  city  at  the  head 
of  his  army  on  May  30,  1849,  and  assumed  the  reins  of 
government,  one  of  his  first  measures  being  a  wholesale 
expulsion  of  Jimenez  followers.  He  was  crowned  with 
honors  by  Congress  and  given  the  title  of  "Libertador." 

The  electoral  college  having  been  convened,  Santiago 
Espaillat  was  chosen  president,  but  refused  to  accept, 
realizing  that  Santana  would  expect  to  manage  him  as  a 
puppet.  Colonel  Buenaventura  Baez  was  then  chosen 
and  on  December  24,  1849,  entered  upon  his  first  term  as 
president  of  the  Dominican  Republic. 

Baez,  who  was  to  play  a  leading  part  in  the  history 
of  his  country  during  the  next  thirty  years,  was  the 
antithesis  of  Santana  in  manners  and  education.  Born 
in  Azua  in  1812,  the  oldest  of  a  family  of  seven  childern, 
his  father  had  sent  him  to  Europe  to  study  and  he 


50  SANTO  DOMINGO 

returned  one  of  the  most  polished  and  best  educated 
Dominicans  of  his  day.  Under  Haitian  rule  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Haitian  congress  and  of  one  of  the 
Haitian  constitutional  assemblies.  Almost  white  him- 
self, he  here  distinguished  himself  by  his  boldness  in 
opposing  measures  restricting  the  rights  of  whites  in 
Haiti.  After  the  declaration  of  independence  of  Santo 
Domingo  he  was  a  member  of  the  first  constitutional 
assembly  and  speaker  of  the  first  congress,  being  elected 
from  the  province  of  Azua,  where  his  influence  was 
similar  to  that  enjoyed  by  Santana  in  Seibo.  Until  he 
became  president  he  was  a  close  friend  of  Santana. 

Baez  determined  to  take  the  offensive  against  Haiti, 
and  a  small  naval  campaign  was  undertaken  in  which 
Dominican  government  schooners  captured  Anse-a- 
Pitre  and  one  or  two  other  villages  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Haiti,  which  were  sacked  and  burned  by  the 
Dominicans.  At  the  same  time  Baez  requested  the 
mediation  of  the  United  States,  France  and  England  to 
put  an  end  to  the  struggle  between  Haiti  and  the 
Dominican  Republic.  Soulouque,  who  had  meanwhile 
proclaimed  himself  Emperor  of  Haiti,  offered  to  agree 
to  peace  and  recognize  Baez,  but  on  condition  that  the 
Haitian  flag  be  raised  in  Santo  Domingo  and  the 
sovereignty  of  Haiti  be  admitted.  His  conditions  were 
naturally  rejected  by  the  Dominicans,  and  the  mediating 
powers  informed  the  negro  emperor  that  if  he  persisted 
in  his  plans  of  invading  Santo  Domingo  they  would  be 
obliged  to  impose  a  suspension  of  hostilities  for  ten 
years.  Nevertheless  his  forces  continued  to  mass  on 
the  frontiers  and  small  bodies  actually  entered  Domin- 
ican territory,  but  were  driven  back.  Upon  the  pro- 
tests of  the  three  powers  Soulouque  explained  the  in- 
cursions as  having  been  due  to  disobedience  to  orders, 
and  under  pressure  agreed  to  a  truce  for  one  year,  dur- 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  51 

ing  which  negotiations  were  to  continue  for  a  definite 
treaty  of  peace  or  an  armistice  of  ten  years.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1852,  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs  of  France 
notified  Haiti  that  the  maritime  nations  of  Europe  were 
disposed  to  maintain  the  independence  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo. 

A  period  of  peace  now  began  which  aiforded  a 
breathing-spell  to  the  country.  Upon  the  expiration 
of  Baez'  four  year  term,  Santana  was  again  elected 
president  and  entered  upon  the  office  on  February  15, 
1853.  It  was  one  of  the  occasions,  only  too  rare  in 
Dominican  history,  on  which  a  president  served  out  his 
term  and  personally  delivered  up  the  office  to  his  suc- 
cessor. 

The  domineering  spirit  of  Santana  gave  rise  to 
serious  dissensions.  He  quarreled  with  the  clergy, 
which  had  been  taking  an  active  part  in  politics  since 
the  declaration  of  independence,  forced  the  archbishop, 
under  penalty  of  expulsion,  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  constitution,  and  banished  several  priests.  One 
of  the  reasons  for  his  stand  was  perhaps  the  circum- 
stance that  Baez  had  sought  to  attract  the  church.  For 
several  years  Santana  had  become  jealous  of  the  exten- 
sion of  Baez'  influence,  and  wrathful  at  the  independent 
spirit  displayed  by  his  former  protege.  It  soon  became 
apparent  that  the  retirement  of  Baez  was  equivalent  to 
a  fall  from  power.  In  July,  1853,  Santana  issued  a  proc- 
lamation in  which  he  accused  Baez  of  treason  and  of 
playing  into  the  hands  of  the  Haitians,  and  ordered  his 
banishment.  Baez  fled  from  the  country  and  answered 
with  a  fiery  counter-appeal,  justifying  himself  and 
accusing  Santana  of  despotism,  whereupon  the  breach 
between  the  two  strong  men  was  complete.  Santana 
also  quarreled  with  Congress  and  banished  or  shot  his 
principal  adversaries. 


52  SANTO  DOMINGO 

In  1854  a  constitutional  convention  assembled  to 
draft  a  constitution  more  to  Santana's  taste  than  the 
existing  one.  The  presidential  term  was  extended  to 
six  years  and  the  office  of  vice-president  was  introduced, 
General  Manuel  de  Regla  Mota  being  elected  to  this 
office  when  General  Felipe  Alfau  declined  it.  This 
constitution  did  not  last  six  months,  for  before  the  end 
of  the  year  Santana  had  it  further  restricted. 

Under  fear  of  foreign  complications  Haiti  had  re- 
mained quiet  for  several  years,  but  in  1855,  when  Eng- 
land and  France  were  engaged  in  the  Crimean  war,  the 
emperor  Soulouque  made  a  last  determined  effort  to 
subjugate  Santo  Domingo.  One  army  advanced  by 
way  of  the  south,  another  through  the  central  valley; 
both  captured  the  border  towns  and  drove  the  Domin- 
ican outposts  before  them;  and  both  were  defeated  on 
the  same  day,  December  22,  1855,  the  southern  army  at 
Cambronal,  near  Neiba,  by  a  Dominican  force  under 
General  Sosa,  and  the  other  on  the  savanna  of  Santome, 
by  a  force  under  General  Jose  Maria  Cabral.  Not  to  be 
deterred,  Soulouque  rallied  his  men  within  Haitian 
territory,  shot  a  few  of  his  generals,  and,  believing  all 
the  Dominican  forces  collected  in  the  south,  marched 
north  to  invade  the  Cibao.  Here  he  was  met  by  another 
band  of  Dominicans  at  Sabana  Larga  and  again  de- 
feated, retreating  precipitately  to  his  dominions.  It 
was  the  last  Haitian  invasion,  but  Haiti  did  not  formally 
recognize  the  independence  of  the  Dominican  Republic 
until  1874. 

The  harsh  measures  of  Santana  had  provoked  general 
dissatisfaction  and  the  friends  of  Baez  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity to  conspire  in  his  favor.  Santana  realized  that 
the  days  of  his  government  were  numbered,  and  re- 
signed the  presidency  as  he  had  done  in  1849,  retiring 
to  his  farm  near  Seibo.  Manuel  de  Regla  Mota,  the 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  53 

vice-president,  thereupon  on  March  26,  1856,  became 
president.  Baez  soon  after  arrived  in  the  country  and 
was  elected  vice-president;  thereupon  Regla  Mota 
resigned  as  president  and  Baez  thus  slid  into  the  pres- 
idency in  a  perfectly  legal  manner. 

The  second  administration  of  Baez  opened  with  a 
revolution  against  him  in  the  Neiba  district,  which  was 
promptly  put  down.  Baez  then  had  Santana  arrested 
and  exiled,  feeling  uncomfortable  while  his  former  chief 
remained  in  the  country.  But  he  was  not  destined  to 
have  peace.  An  ill-considered  issue  of  more  paper 
money,  when  the  rate  of  exchange  with  gold  was  already 
fifty  to  one,  created  indignation  in  the  tobacco  region 
of  the  Cibao  and  on  July  7,  1857;  Santiago  declared  it- 
self in  revolution.  The  movement  rapidly  spread,  a 
provisional  government  was  set  up  in  the  Cibao,  the 
forces  of  Baez  were  repulsed,  and  soon  the  president 
held  only  Santo  Domingo  City  and  Samana.  The 
revolutionists  called  a  constitutional  convention  which 
met  at  Moca  and  in  February,  1858,  promulgated 
another  constitution,  designating  Santiago  as  the  cap- 
ital. An  election  was  held  in  the  midst  of  the  war  and 
General  Jose  Desiderio  Valverde  was  declared  elected 
president.  For  months  there  were  thus  two  govern- 
ments in  the  country.  The  revolutionists  began  the 
siege  of  Santo  Domingo  City  towards  the  end  of  July, 
1857,  and  later  Santana  arrived  and  took  charge  of 
military  operations.  There  were  frequent  artillery 
duels,  the  fourteenth  anniversary  of  Dominican  in- 
dependence, February  27,  1858,  being  celebrated  by  a 
cannonade  along  the  Ozama  River  lasting  all  day. 
Fortunately  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  com- 
bats was  the  noise,  but  the  Baez  family  suffered,  two 
of  the  president's  brothers  being  killed  in  the  war. 
Baez  held  out  for  eleven  months,  but  after  the  fall  of 


54  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Samana  and  when  Santo  Domingo  was  reduced  to 
starvation  he  at  length  yielded  to  the  entreaties  of  the 
foreign  consuls  and  capitulated  on  June  12,  1858.  As 
soon  as  he  had  embarked  for  Curacao,  General  Santana 
marched  into  the  city  with  the  victorious  army. 

It  was  not  compatible  with  Santana's  character  to  be 
subordinate  to  anyone  else,  and  by  the  end  of  July  he 
had  quarreled  with  the  government  at  Santiago  and 
set  up  a  government  of  his  own  "in  order  that  the 
lovers  of  liberty  be  not  disquieted,  in  order  that  peace 
prevail,  and  in  order  that  the  nation  be  saved,"  as  he 
said  in  his  proclamation.  The  Santiago  government 
attempted  to  resist  but  was  overcome  and  its  mem- 
bers banished.  Santana  declared  the  constitution  of 
December,  1854,  in  force  again  and  called  an  election  at 
which  he  was,  of  course,  chosen  president,  taking  the 
oath  of  office  on  January  31,  1859.  He  thereupon 
crushed  a  revolution  in  Azua,  executing  the  leaders.  As 
the  large  amount  of  paper  in  circulation  caused  difficul- 
ties, he  coolly  repudiated  the  greater  part,  upon  which  a 
number  of  European  countries  temporarily  broke  off 
diplomatic  relations  because  of  the  injury  done  their 
citizens  and  forced  him  to  retire  the  paper  by  issuing  in 
lieu  thereof  certificates  acceptable  for  customs  dues. 
This  trouble  removed,  he  devoted  himself  to  securing 
the  annexation  of  Santo  Domingo  to  Spain. 

From  the  earliest  days  of  the  Dominican  Republic 
the  most  prominent  men  had  believed  that  the  happi- 
ness of  the  country  depended  upon  securing  the  protec- 
tion of  a  strong  power,  capable  of  preserving  order,  and 
the  years  of  warfare  confirmed  them  in  their  opinion. 
The  hope  of  remaining  in  power  was  also  an  incentive 
to  the  party  which  happened  to  be  in  control.  Spain 
and  France  were  preferred,  for  reasons  of  identity  or 
similarity  of  language,  customs  and  religion.  Many 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  55 

also  favored  the  United  States,  but  while  the  republican 
form  of  government  and  the  probability  of  commercial 
advantages  were  attractions,  the  existence  of  slavery 
and  of  prejudice  against  the  colored  race  inspired  mis- 
givings. As  early  as  1843,  even  before  the  declaration 
of  independence,  an  attempt  was  made  to  secure  a 
French  protectorate,  and  during  the  first  war  with 
Haiti,  Santana  continued  the  negotiations.  In  1846 
an  attempt  was  made  to  obtain  a  Spanish  protectorate. 
In  1849  President  Baez  in  his  message  to  Congress 
referred  to  the  advisability  of  "hastening  a  solution  of 
the  matter  by  obtaining  the  intervention  and  protection 
of  a  strong  nation  which  would  offer  the  most  ad- 
vantageous terms,  for  on  this  depends  public  pros- 
perity." On  October  18,  1849,  the  Dominican  minister 
of  foreign  affairs  in  a  note  to  the  French  consul,  stated 
that  "the  present  situation  of  the  country  and  the 
barbarous  wars  with  the  Haitians,  obliged  him  to  beg, 
in  the  name  of  his  government,  that  the  government  of 
France  give  a  definite  solution  to  the  important  matter 
of  the  protectorate;  and  if  the  decision  of  France  should 
unfortunately  be  in  the  negative,  that  it  at  least  be  not 
deferred  too  long  to  prevent  him  from  addressing  him- 
self to  the  special  representative  of  the  United  States, 
who  had  just  arrived."  The  United  States  was  men- 
tioned as  a  bogey,  for  when  France  declined,  the 
Dominican  government  stated  that  it  could  not  consider 
the  negative  as  final  and  appealed  to  the  French  sen- 
timents of  humanity.  In  1854  another  strong  attempt 
was  made  to  secure  a  Spanish  protectorate.  Neither 
France  nor  Spain  was  anxious  to  annex  a  hornet's  nest, 
and  Spain  was  fearful  that  any  uprising  against  her 
authority  would  find  an  echo  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 
In  1855  negotiations  were  opened  with  General  William 
L.  Cazneau,  special  agent  of  President  Pierce,  for  the 


56  SANTO  DOMINGO 

lease  of  the  Samana  peninsula  to  the  United  States,  and 
in  the  following  year  Captain  (later  Major-General) 
George  B.  McClellan,  of  the  United  States  Army,  made 
an  examination  of  Samana  Bay.  Nothing  came  of  this 
matter  owing  to  opposition  by  foreign  powers  and  the 
fall  of  the  Santana  government.  Most  annexation 
negotiations  were  secret,  as  the  opponents  of  the  party 
that  happened  to  be  in  power  never  failed  to  stigmatize 
them  as  treasonable. 

The  fear  of  American  influence  was  one  of  the  reasons 
given  by  the  Haitian  emperor  Soulouque  for  his  inva- 
sion of  1855,  and  for  an  invitation  issued  by  him  in 
1858  to  the  Dominican  people,  calling  upon  them  to 
return  to  the  Haitian  flag.  It  had  its  influence  on  the 
Spanish  government  also,  which  began  to  look  more 
kindly  upon  annexation  propositions  and  agreed  to 
furnish  arms,  ammunition  and  military  instructors  to 
Santo  Domingo.  In  1860  Santana  addressed  himself 
directly  to  the  Queen  of  Spain,  and  proposed  a  closer 
union.  Bases  for  annexation  were  drawn  up,  founded 
"on  the  free  and  spontaneous  wish  of  the  Dominican 
people."  Santana  was  careful  to  win  over  the  local 
military  chiefs  to  his  ideas.  His  opponents  vainly  corn- 
batted  the  proposition  from  Curacao  and  from  Haiti, 
which  was  now  a  republic  again. 

On  March  18,  1861,  the  people  of  the  capital  assem- 
bled on  the  main  plaza  pursuant  to  a  call  issued  on  the 
day  before,  General  Santana  and  the  members  of  his 
government  appeared  on  the  gallery  of  the  palace  of 
justice,  a  document  was  read  to  the  public  proclaiming 
the  reincorporation  of  the  country  as  a  part  of  the 
Spanish  dominions,  and  thereupon  the  red  and  gold 
flag  of  Spain  was  raised  on  the  fort  and  on  the  gate 
"Puerta  del  Conde"  and  saluted  with  101  guns.  On  the 
same  day  and  during  the  week  following,  the  Spanish 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  57 

flag  was  raised  with  similar  ceremonies  in  most  of  the 
other  towns.  A  few  days  later  Spanish  troops  were 
disembarked  at  different  points.  Santana  was  ap- 
pointed governor  and  captain-general  of  the  colony, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  the  Spanish 
army. 

The  Dominican  conspirators  in  Haiti,  comprising 
General  Sanchez  and  others  who  had  distinguished 
themselves  in  securing  independence  for  their  country, 
crossed  the  boundary  and  endeavored  to  stir  up  an 
insurrection,  but  with  such  misfortune  that  they  were 
surrounded  and  the  majority  captured.  Santana 
ordered  the  prisoners  shot  and  twenty  were  executed 
on  July  4,  1861,  notwithstanding  the  protests  of 
General  Pelaez,  the  Spanish  officer  second  in  command. 
The  act  provoked  bitterness  against  Spain  and  made 
the  men  so  killed  martyrs  in  the  eyes  of  their  country- 
men. It  also  marked  the  beginning  of  strained  rela- 
tions between  Santana  and  Pelaez,  made  worse  by 
Santana's  arrogance.  The  friction  resulted  in  Santana's 
resignation  on  January  7,  1862.  He  evidently  hoped 
the  queen  would  ask  him  to  reconsider  and  give  him 
carte  blanche  in  Dominican  affairs,  but  the  resignation 
was  accepted,  though  sweetened  by  the  grant  to  him  of 
the  title  of  Marques  de  las  Carreras  and  a  life  pension 
of  $12,000  per  annum.  His  successors  in  the  governor- 
ship were  high  officers  of  the  Spanish  army. 

Discontent  was  not  slow  in  spreading  among  the 
people.  Injudicious  measures  enacted  by  the  Spanish 
authorities,  the  importation  of  hordes  of  foreign  officials, 
the  overbearing  manners  of  several  local  Spanish  com- 
manders, increases  in  the  budget,  intolerance  on  the 
part  of  the  Spanish  priests,  and  the  natural  unrest  of 
the  Dominicans,  all  combined  to  give  rise  to  small 
revolts  which  were  put  down,  until,  on  August  16,  1863, 


58  SANTO  DOMINGO 

a  farmer  named  Cabrera  with  a  small  band  of  followers, 
at  Capotillo,  near  Guayubin  in  the  Cibao,  began  an 
insurrection  which  quickly  became  general  and  is 
known  in  Dominican  history  as  the  War  of  the  Restora- 
tion. The  Spanish  forces  of  the  Cibao  valley  were 
obliged  to  concentrate  in  Fort  San  Luis,  at  Santiago  de 
los  Caballeros,  where  they  were  besieged  by  the  insur- 
gents. The  Dominicans  also  captured  Puerto  Plata, 
but  the  city  was  retaken  by  Spanish  troops  from  Cuba. 
Reinforcements  were  sent  to  the  besieged  garrison  of 
Santiago,  and  in  the  fight  which  the  Dominicans  made 
to  prevent  the  joining  of  the  Spanish  forces,  the  city  of 
Santiago  was  set  on  fire  and  reduced  to  ashes.  The 
Spaniards  determined  to  evacuate  the  place,  and 
marched  down  to  the  coast,  being  constantly  harassed 
by  Dominican  guerillas,  so  that  they  lost  over  a  thou- 
sand men  before  reaching  Puerto  Plata.  The  Domin- 
icans established  a  provisional  government  with  its 
capital  at  Santiago  and  the  country  continued  to  be 
devastated  with  fire  and  sword. 

General  Santana  was  given  command  of  a  Spanish 
force  to  put  down  the  insurrection  in  the  east,  but 
insisting  on  carrying  out  his  own  plan  of  campaign,  he 
disobeyed  orders  and  so  rudely  answered  the  governor- 
general's  remonstrances  that  he  was  summarily  re- 
moved from  his  position.  In  high  dudgeon  he  retired  to 
the  capital,  and  it  is  stated  that  the  governor  intended 
to  ship  him  off  to  Cuba;  but  on  June  14,  1864,  he  sud- 
denly died,  after  an  illness  of  only  a  few  hours. 

If  the  Spaniards  had  displayed  energy  in  opposing 
the  revolutionists  they  would  probably  have  carried  off 
the  victory,  but  the  whole  number  of  their  troops  on 
the  island  available  for  military  service  at  any  one  time 
rarely  reached  eight  thousand  men.  A  campaign  in  the 
Monte  Cristi  district  which  might  have  ended  the  war 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  59 

was  rendered  sterile  by  the  lack  of  troops.  Finally  the 
Spaniards,  unable  to  garrison  the  towns  they  won,  were 
reduced  to  the  possession  of  Santo  Domingo  City  and  a 
few  other  places  near  the  seacoast,  all  practically  in  a 
state  of  siege.  Meanwhile  the  military  operations  were 
costing  the  home  government  large  sums  of  money,  and 
it  became  evident  that,  owing  to  the  failure  to  strike 
at  the  right  time,  the  subjugation  of  the  country  would 
entail  enormous  expenditures.  Political  conditions  in 
Spain  were  not  favorable  to  such  a  war  of  conquest,  and 
the  Spanish  government  determined  to  withdraw  from 
Santo  Domingo,  alleging  that  Spain  had  taken  posses- 
sion only  because  she  believed  the  Dominicans  were 
anxious  for  annexation  but  that  she  did  not  wish  to 
remain  against  their  will.  Possible  complications  with 
the  United  States,  just  emerging  from  the  Civil  War, 
were  probably  also  taken  into  account.  On  May  I, 
1865,  the  Queen  of  Spain  sanctioned  a  law  of  the 
Spanish  Cortes  providing  for  the  relinquishment  of 
the  colony.  The  Spanish  forces  were  brought  together 
at  Santo  Domingo  City,  and  on  July  n,  1865,  after  the 
guns  in  the  forts  had  been  spiked  and  the  military  stores 
on  hand  had  been  destroyed,  the  troops  and  the  au- 
thorities embarked  in  a  fleet  assembled  for  that  purpose 
and  the  Spanish  flag  was  lowered,  for  the  last  time,  in 
Santo  Domingo. 


CHAPTER  V 

HISTORICAL       SKETCH. — SECOND       REPUBLIC. — REVOLU- 
TIONS  AND   DICTATORSHIPS. 1863    TO    1904 

Restoration  of  the  republic. — Military  presidents. — Cabral's  administra- 
tion.— Baez'  fourth  administration. — Annexation  negotiations  with  the 
United  States. — Civil  wars. — Heureaux's  rule. — Administrations  of 
Jimenez,  Vasquez  and  Woss  y  Gil. — Election  of  Morales. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  War  of  the  Restora- 
tion and  for  several  years  afterwards,  the  principal  Do- 
minican military  chiefs  were  engaged  in  a  disgraceful 
squabble  for  leadership.  As  soon  as  the  Spanish  forces 
retired  from  Santiago  the  revolutionists,  on  Septem- 
ber 14,  1863,  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  republic 
and  set  up  a  provisional  government  under  the  pres- 
idency of  General  Jose  Antonio  Salcedo.  The  other 
generals  accused  Salcedo  of  lack  of  energy  in  pushing 
the  war  and  on  October  10,  1864,  deposed  him  and 
made  General  Caspar  Polanco  president  in  his  stead. 
Poor  Salcedo  tried  to  resist,  but  was  captured,  hurried 
by  a  friend  from  one  camp  to  another  to  keep  him  from 
being  shot,  and  at  last  foully  murdered.  Polanco  did 
not  enjoy  his  triumph  long.  A  reaction  set  in,  a  revolu- 
tion was  initiated  against  him,  his  troops  deserted,  he 
was  captured  and  imprisoned,  and  on  January  24,  1865, 
a  superior  council  of  government  was  formed  by  the 
insurgents,  presided  over  by  General  Benigno  Filomeno 
de  Rojas.  The  council  called  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion which  proclaimed  the  constitution  of  Moca  of  1858 
and  in  March,  1865,  elected  General  Pedro  Antonio 
Pimentel  president.  It  was  he  who  entered  Santo 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  6l 

Domingo  City  after  the  evacuation  by  the  Span- 
iards. 

Hardly  had  the  evacuation  taken  place  when  Gen- 
erals Cabral  and  Manzueta  raised  an  insurrection  which 
overthrew  Pimentel's  government  while  he  was  absent 
on  the  Haitian  border,  and  General  Jose  Maria  Cabral, 
an  educated  mulatto,  was  proclaimed  Protector  of  the 
Republic.  Cabral  had  formerly  been  one  of  the  most 
enthusiastic  followers  of  Baez  but  it  soon  became  evi- 
dent that  he  was  working  for  himself.  He  convoked  a 
constitutional  assembly  which  was  convening  when 
General  Pedro  Guillermo  rose  in  the  east  and  pro- 
claimed General  Buenaventura  Baez  president.  The 
movement  was  successful  and  the  Congress,  completely 
convinced  by  the  sight  of  a  sword  unsheathed  in  its 
presence  by  one  of  the  victorious  generals,  elected  Baez 
to  the  presidency. 

Since  his  overthrow  in  1858  Baez  had  been  in  exile, 
but  he  had  accepted  Spanish  sovereignty  and  the  rank 
of  fieldmarshal  in  the  Spanish  army.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  War  of  the  Restoration,  he  sent  Cabral  to  join  the 
Dominican  forces  as  his  representative.  He  was  now 
living  in  Curasao  and  a  commission  journeyed  there 
to  invite  him  back  to  Santo  Domingo,  a  council  inau- 
gurated on  October  25,  1865,  meanwhile  taking  charge. 
A  new  constitution  was  drafted  and  promulgated  on 
November  14,  1865,  and  on  the  same  day  Baez  entered 
upon  his  office.  Neither  he  nor  the  constitution  lasted 
long.  The  constitution  being  too  liberal,  he  had  it 
abrogated  on  April  19,  1866,  and  Santana's  constitu- 
tion of  December  16,  1854,  was  adopted  in  its  stead. 
This  action  was  the  excuse  for  an  insurrection  which 
broke  out  in  Santiago  on  May  I,  1866,  under  the 
leadership  of  Pimentel  in  combination  with  Cabral,  and 
quickly  assumed  such  alarming  proportions  that  Baez 


62  SANTO  DOMINGO 

found  it  prudent  to  resign  before  the  end  of  the  month 
and  retire  to  Curasao. 

As  usual  a  constitutional  assembly  was  called,  and  a 
new  constitution  was  promulgated  on  September  26, 

1866.  An  election  was  held  and  Cabral  chosen  president 
by  a   practically  unanimous   vote.     Nevertheless   his 
government  had  scarcely  a  day's  peace  from  insurrec- 
tions.    It  found  time,  however,  to  resume  amicable 
relations  with  Spain,  to  make  a  commercial  treaty  with 
the  United  States  and  to  found  a  professional  institute. 
Other    relations   with    the   United    States    were    also 
planned;  for  as  Spain  and  France  were  eliminated  from 
the  annexation  idea  and  the  United  States  had  abolished 
slavery,   this  country  was   looked  upon  with  greater 
favor.    The  cost  of  the  government's  military  activities 
was  such  that  a  strong  attempt  was  made  to  lease 
Samana  Bay  to  the  United  States  for  two  million  dol- 
lars; but  as  complete  control  was  not  offered  the  plan 
fell  through.    Later  a  special  commissioner  was  sent  to 
Washington  to  negotiate  for  the  absolute  lease  of  the 
Samana  peninsula  and  Samana  Bay,  which  negotiations 
were  the  prelude  to  the  later  annexation  negotiations, 
but  they  were  interrupted  by  a  revolution  in  favor  of 
Baez  which  broke  out  in  Monte  Cristi  on  October  7, 

1867,  and  deposed  Cabral  on  January  31,   1868.     A 
council  of  generals  administered  affairs  until  Baez  took 
charge  for  the  fourth  time,  on  May  4,  1868. 

In  accordance  with  established  usage,  the  existing 
constitution  was  abrogated  and  Baez'  pet  constitution, 
that  of  December,  1854,  placed  in  force,  but  with 
amendments.  Baez  then  began  to  rule  with  a  firm 
hand,  and  though  occasionally  bothered  by  small  up- 
risings on  the  Haitian  border,  promoted  by  Cabral, 
Luperon  and  other  unruly  spirits,  managed  to  sustain 
himself  in  power  for  almost  his  full  term  of  six  years. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  63 

He  was  able  to  realize  what  had  been  the  golden  dream 
of  administrations  since  the  birth  of  the  Republic,  the 
contracting  of  a  foreign  loan.  Hartmont  &  Co.,  a 
firm  of  London  bankers,  agreed  to  issue  bonds  of  the 
Republic  to  the  amount  of  £757,700,  though  at  a 
ruinous  rate,  and  actually  paid  over  £38,095.  The 
dream  turned  to  a  nightmare,  for  when  the  government 
annulled  the  contract  on  the  ground  of  failure  to  com- 
ply with  conditions,  the  bankers  continued  to  issue 
bonds  and  kept  the  proceeds  themselves;  and  the  bonds 
thus  fraudulently  issued  constituted  the  nucleus  of  the 
enormous  debt  which  later  led  to  American  interven- 
tion. 

Though  Baez  had,  for  political  reasons,  protested 
against  Cabral's  negotiations  with  the  United  States,  he 
was  too  sagacious  a  statesman  to  fail  to  recognize  the 
value  of  American  protection.  It  was  now  Cabral's 
turn  to  indulge  in  tirades  full  of  patriotic  indignation, 
for  Baez  actively  pursued  negotiations  for  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  country  to  the  United  States.  On  Novem- 
ber 29,  1869,  two  treaties  were  signed  in  Santo  Domingo 
City  by  representatives  of  the  American  and  Dominican 
governments :  by  one  the  Samana  peninsula  and  Samana 
Bay  were  leased  to  the  United  States  for  fifty  years  at 
an  annual  rental  of  $150,000,  and  by  the  other  the 
Dominican  Republic  was  annexed  to  the  United  States. 
Baez  submitted  the  annexation  treaty  to  a  plebiscite 
in  his  country  in  February,  1870,  and  an  overwhelming 
vote  was  cast  in  favor  thereof.  While  the  adversaries 
of  the  treaty  did  not  dare  to  oppose  it  actively  within 
the  country,  it  is  probable  that  the  vote  represented 
the  true  sentiment  of  the  Dominican  people,  for  aside 
from  the  evident  economic  advantages  of  annexation, 
the  influence  of  Baez  was  such  that  the  people  were 
ready  to  follow  blindly  whatever  he  advised. 


64  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Both  treaties  lapsed,  but  the  annexation  treaty  was 
renewed  and  President  Grant  in  his  messages  to  Con- 
gress strongly  urged  its  passage.  Powerful  opposition 
developed  in  the  United  States  Senate,  led  by  Senator 
Sumner,  and  the  treaty  failed  of  ratification.  By  a 
resolution  of  Congress,  approved  January  12,  1871, 
the  President  of  the  United  States  was  authorized  to 
send  a  commission  of  inquiry  to  Santo  Domingo. 
President  Grant  appointed  three  eminent  men,  Benja- 
min F.  Wade,  Andrew  D.  White  and  Samuel  G.  Howe, 
who  were  assisted  by  Frederick  Douglas,  Major-General 
Franz  Sigel  and  a  number  of  scientists.  The  commis- 
sion proceeded  to  Santo  Domingo,  travelled  across  the 
country  in  several  directions  and  made  an  extensive 
report,  which  is  still  an  important  source  of  information 
as  to  the  characteristics  of  the  island.  The  commis- 
sion's report  was  transmitted  to  Congress,  and  President 
Grant  made  another  earnest  plea  for  the  annexation  of 
Santo  Domingo.  Congress  took  no  further  action, 
however,  and  the  United  States  thus  deliberately  re- 
jected an  opportunity  to  obtain  control  of  a  most  im- 
portant strategical  position  and  to  secure  peace  and 
prosperity  to  the  Dominican  people. 

It  is  interesting  to  speculate  on  what  the  future  of 
Santo  Domingo  would  have  been  if  annexation  had 
been  realized.  The  power  of  the  United  States  would 
have  maintained  peace;  salutary  laws  would  have 
educated  the  people  in  self-government;  liberal  tariff 
concessions  would  have  stimulated  agriculture  and 
industry;  the  influx  of  a  good  stock  of  immigrants 
would  have  developed  and  settled  the  interior;  honest 
administration  would  have  provided  roads  and  schools, 
and  soon  the  country  would  have  attained  a  high  degree 
of  development  and  prosperity.  The  failure  of  the 
United  States  to  extend  a  helping  hand  condemned 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  65 

Santo  Domingo  to  long  years  of  anarchy  and  dictator- 
ships. 

When  it  became  apparent  that  nothing  would  come 
of  the  annexation  plans,  the  Baez  administration,  on 
December  28,  1872,  rented  the  Samana  peninsula  to  an 
American  corporation,  the  "Samana  Bay  Company," 
for  ninety-nine  years,  at  an  annual  rental  of  $150,00x3. 
The  company,  which  intended  to  found  a  large  city  on 
Samana  Bay,  actually  paid  the  sum  of  $147,229.91,  the 
greater  part  in  gold  and  the  remainder  in  arms  and 
ammunition.  This  payment,  with  that  received  on 
account  of  the  Hartmont  bonds,  and  with  the  higher 
customs  receipts  due  to  quiet  conditions,  afforded 
relief  to  the  treasury;  while  peace  brought  the  country  a 
prosperity  further  increased  by  the  immigration  of 
numerous  Cubans  driven  from  their  homes  by  the 
ten  years'  war  that  had  begun  in  1869. 

President  Baez  did  not  lose  hope  in  the  ultimate 
realization  of  annexation,  and  it  was  also  his  intention 
to  have  himself  reflected  for  another  term  of  six  years. 
These  circumstances  were  used  against  him  by  his 
ambitious  enemies,  and  on  November  25,  1873,  a 
revolution  broke  out  in  Puerto  Plata  which  spread  so 
rapidly  that  Baez  was  obliged  to  capitulate  on  Decem- 
ber 31  of  the  same  year.  A  new  generation,  grown  up 
since  the  independence  of  the  country  and  which  had 
come  to  look  upon  civil  disorder  as  a  normal  condition, 
now  came  into  power,  and  the  question  of  foreign 
annexation  ceased  to  be  an  issue. 

A  period  of  constant  revolutionary  ferment  and 
frequent  changes  of  the  constitution  followed,  with 
a  wearisome  succession  of  military  presidents.  General 
Ignacio  Maria  Gonzalez  became  provisional  president 
in  1874,  took  advantage  of  the  non-payment  of  an 
annuity  by  the  Samana  Bay  Company  to  rescind  the 


66  SANTO  DOMINGO 

contract  with  the  company,  called  a  national  assembly, 
which  formulated  the  constitution  of  March  24,  1874, 
and  had  himself  elected  president,  entering  upon  office 
on  April  6  of  that  year.  As  the  constitution  did  not 
suit  him,  he  called  a  new  national  convention  and  had 
another  constitution  promulgated  on  March  9,  1875. 
This  was  too  much  even  for  Santo  Domingo,  and  his 
enemies  formed  a  powerful  league  in  Santiago  with  a 
view  to  having  him  impeached,  but  the  Congress  re- 
jected the  charges.  Another  civil  war  was  imminent 
when  Gonzalez  resigned  on  February  23,  1876. 

The  council  of  ministers  took  charge  of  the  govern- 
ment and  held  an  election  at  which  Ulises  F.  Espaillat 
was  designated  president.  He  entered  upon  office  on 
April  29,  1876,  and  as  he  was  an  excellent  man  would 
have  given  a  good  account  of  himself  under  different 
conditions;  but  General  Gonzalez  started  a  revolution 
on  the  Haitian  frontier,  and  on  October  5,  1876,  Es- 
paillat was  ousted.  A  superior  council  of  government 
was  formed,  which  appointed  General  Gonzalez  pres- 
ident in  the  beginning  of  November,  1876.  Gonzalez 
had  been  in  power  for  just  one  month  when  he  was 
overthrown,  in  December,  1876,  by  a  revolution  that 
originated  in  the  Cibao,  and  General  Buenaventura 
Baez  became  president  for  the  fifth  time.  The  Republic 
thus  had  four  presidents  in  1876:  Gonzalez  twice, 
Espaillat  and  Baez.  Baez  called  a  constitutional  con- 
vention and  the  constitution  of  May  14,  1877,  was 
promulgated.  Under  the  influence  of  the  younger 
element  he  was  less  autocratic  than  in  his  previous 
administrations,  but  perhaps  for  that  very  reason  his 
whole  term  was  one  prolonged  struggle  with  insurrec- 
tions, until  he  was  obliged  to  surrender  on  February  24, 
1878.  He  retired  to  Porto  Rico  and  died  near  Mayaguez 
in  1884. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  67 

Two  governments  were  now  established,  General 
Ignacio  Maria  Gonzalez  being  proclaimed  president  in 
the  Cibao,  and  General  Cesareo  Guillermo  in  Santo 
Domingo.  An  agreement  was  reached  by  them  on 
April  13,  1878,  and  Guillermo  became  provisional 
president  of  the  entire  country.  The  constitution  of 
1877  was  rep  reclaimed  with  amendments,  an  election 
was  held  and  General  Gonzalez  was  declared  constitu- 
tional president,  entering  upon  office  on  July  6,  1878. 
Guillermo  immediately  started  a  revolution  with 
General  Ulises  Heureaux  and  compelled  Gonzalez  to 
abdicate  on  September  2,  1878.  It  was  the  end  of 
Gonzalez'  meteoric  presidential  flights,  but  after  a 
period  of  retirement  he  ventured  into  public  life  again, 
and  for  many  years  was  Dominican  minister  to  Haiti. 

Jacinto  de  Castro,  the  president  of  the  supreme 
court,  acted  as  president  until  September  29,  1878,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  the  council  of  ministers  of  which 
Guillermo  was  chief.  The  constitution  of  1878  was 
promulgated,  with  amendments,  on  February  II,  1879, 
and  on  February  28,  Guillermo,  after  going  through  the 
form  of  an  election,  became  constitutional  president. 
He  did  not  last  long.  On  October  6,  1879,  a  revolution 
broke  out  at  Puerto  Plata  and  a  provisional  government 
was  formed  under  the  presidency  of  General  Gregorio 
Luperon,  an  intelligent  negro,  who  had  been  imprisoned 
for  larceny  under  Spanish  rule,  but  had  redeemed  him- 
self by  signal  services  in  the  War  of  the  Restoration. 
Guillermo  resisted  two  months,  but  was  compelled  to 
surrender  on  December  6,  1879. 

Luperon  did  not  depart  from  the  usual  custom,  but 
called  a  constitutional  assembly  which,  in  1880,  adopted 
with  amendments  the  constitution  of  1879,  and  fixed 
the  presidential  term  at  two  years.  Luperon  then  held 
an  election  and  gave  the  presidency,  for  the  two  years 


68  SANTO  DOMINGO 

beginning  September  I,  1880,  to  one  of  his  supporters, 
Father  Fernando  de  Merino,  an  eloquent  priest  who 
had  taken  an  active  part  in  politics  since  his  youth,  and 
who  later  became  archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo.  The 
reverend  gentleman  suppressed  all  revolutionary  up- 
risings with  uncompromising  severity  and  did  not 
hesitate  to  execute  the  conspirators  that  fell  into  his 
hands. 

During  Merino's  administration  General  Ulises  Heu- 
reaux  served  as  minister  of  the  interior  and  began  to 
wield  the  power  which  he  was  to  retain  for  twenty 
years.  Heureaux  was  born  in  Puerto  Plata  about  1846. 
Both  of  his  parents  were  negroes,  his  father  being  a 
Haitian  who  followed  the  sea  and  afterwards  became  a 
merchant,  and  his  mother  a  St.  Thomas  woman.  He 
received  a  mercantile  education  and  took  part  as  a 
subordinate  in  the  War  of  the  Restoration  against  the 
Spaniards.  On  the  withdrawal  of  the  Spaniards,  in 
1865,  he  became  a  bandit  on  the  Haitian  border  and 
practised  horse  stealing  on  a  large  scale.  Later  he  ob- 
tained a  position  in  the  Puerto  Plata  custom-house  and 
took  a  more  and  more  prominent  part  in  the  civil  dis- 
turbances of  his  country,  until  he  became  well  known  as 
a  politician  and  a  revolutionist.  He  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  bravery  and  was  many  times  wounded. 
Throughout  these  civil  wars  he  remained  a  sturdy  fol- 
lower of  General  Luperon,  the  successor  of  Santana  as 
leader  of  the  "Blue"  party  and  an  implacable  opponent 
of  General  Buenaventura  Baez,  the  chief  of  the  "Reds" 
and  of  General  Ignacio  Maria  Gonzalez,  the  leader  of 
the  "Greens."  When  General  Luperon  overthrew 
President  Cesareo  Guillermo,  in  1879,  Heureaux  was 
closely  associated  with  the  revolutionary  movement. 

Heureaux  was  able  to  strengthen  himself  to  such  an 
extent  that  when,  in  1882,  Luperon  determined  to 


THE  STRONGEST  PRESIDENTS  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Above,  left:  PEDRO  SANTANA,  three  times  President,  who  obtained  annexa- 
tion to  Spain.  Above,  right:  BUENAVENTURA  BAEZ,  five  times  Presi- 
dent, who  sought  annexation  to  the  United  States.  Below,  left:  ULISES 
HEUREAUX,  dictator  from  1881  to  1899.  Below,  right:  RAMON  CACERES, 
President  1906-11,  who  gave  support  to  the  1907  debt  settlement. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  69 

become  president  himself  he  found  that  his  former  fol- 
lower had  outgrown  him  in  power.  The  result  was  that 
Heureaux  became  president  and  served  from  Septem- 
ber i,  1882,  to  September  I,  1884.  When  his  term  ex- 
pired a  bitter  struggle  ensued  with  Luperon,  who  still 
retained  considerable  influence.  Luperon's  candidate 
was  Segundo  Imbert,  while  Heureaux  supported  General 
Francisco  Gregorio  Billini,  who  was  ultimately  vic- 
torious. Luperon  went  into  exile,  but  later  became 
reconciled  with  Heureaux  and  returned  to  die  in  Santo 
Domingo. 

Billini  entered  upon  the  presidency  on  Septem- 
ber I,  1884,  but  became  restive  under  the  demands  of 
Heureaux  and  his  friends  and  resigned  on  May  15, 
1885.  The  vice-president,  Alejandro  Woss  y  Gil, 
succeeded  to  the  chief  office.  His  term  was  to  have 
expired  in  September  of  the  following  year,  but  a 
formidable  insurrection  broke  out  in  July,  1886,  under 
General  Casimiro  N.  de  Moya,  with  the  object  of  pre- 
venting Heureaux  from  carrying  out  his  design  of 
succeeding  Gil.  After  six  months  of  fighting,  during 
which  the  number  of  fatalities  was  happily  remark- 
ably small,  Heureaux  was  victorious,  and  having  had 
himself  re-elected,  resumed  the  presidency  on  Jan- 
uary 6,  1887,  until  which  time  Woss  y  Gil  remained  in 
office. 

The  biennial  elections  were  a  source  of  annoyance 
even  to  one  who  was  sure  of  victory,  and  Heureaux 
therefore  called  a  constitutional  convention  which 
amended  the  constitution  then  in  force  and  lengthened 
the  presidential  term  to  four  years,  beginning  in  1889. 
As  General  Cesareo  Guillermo,  Heureaux's  former  com- 
panion in  arms  and  later  opponent,  was  understood  to 
be  nursing  aspirations  for  the  presidency,  Heureaux 
sought  to  apprehend  him.  Guillermo  fled,  but  finding 


70  SANTO  DOMINGO 

himself  pressed,  committed  suicide,  No  further  obsta- 
cle opposed  Heureaux's  election,  and  he  was  again  in- 
augurated on  February  27,  1889. 

In  the  meantime  negotiations  had  been  undertaken 
for  the  contracting  of  new  foreign  loans,  and  one  was 
floated  in  1888  and  another  in  1892.  The  government's 
fiscal  agent  who  secured  these  loans  in  Europe  was 
General  Eugenic  Generoso  Marchena,  a  man  of  much 
influence.  In  1892  General  Marchena  announced  him- 
self as  a  candidate  for  the  presidency.  Heureaux  won 
without  difficulty,  but  still  uneasy,  he  arrested  Mar- 
chena in  Santo  Domingo,  imprisoned  him  for  a  year 
and  sent  him  to  Azua  to  be  shot. 

During  Heureaux's  new  term,  beginning  in  1893,  the 
country  by  improvident  bond  issues  and  debt  contrac- 
tion, made  rapid  strides  in  the  direction  of  bankruptcy. 
In  1893,  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Company, 
an  American  corporation,  under  contract  with  the 
government  took  charge  of  the  customs  collections  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  for  the  services  of  the  loans. 
The  illegal  imprisonment  of  several  Frenchmen  gave 
rise  to  friction  with  the  French  government  and  in 
1894  a  French  fleet  appeared  before  Santo  Domingo 
City,  but  the  matter  was  adjusted  by  the  payment  of 
an  indemnity.  As  the  1889  constitution  forbade  a 
president  from  holding  office  for  more  than  two  terms  in 
succession,  Heureaux,  wishing  to  continue  in  the  pres- 
idency, obviated  the  difficulty  by  the  simple  expedient 
of  promulgating  a  new  constitution  in  1896,  in  which 
the  limitation  was  removed.  He  was  declared  unan- 
imously elected  in  1896  and  began  his  final  term  on 
February  27,  1897. 

The  long  period  of  comparative  peace  enjoyed  by 
the  country  under  the  rule  of  President  Ulises  Heu- 
reaux, or  "Lilis,"  as  the  dictator  was  popularly  known, 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  71 

brought  seeming  progress  and  prosperity,  though  at  a 
heavy  price.  Many  of  his  opponents  Heureaux  was 
able  to  buy,  and  in  this  way  he  retained  the  loyalty  of 
hundreds  of  little  military  chiefs  scattered  through  the 
country.  Those  whom  he  could  not  buy  he  persecuted, 
imprisoned,  exiled,  or  executed.  While  possessing 
pleasant  and  affable  manners,  he  was  unrelenting  in  his 
persecution  of  conspirators  and  many  stories  are  told 
of  his  harshness  in  this  respect.  It  is  related  that  when 
he  was  minister  of  the  interior  under  Merino  he  dis- 
covered that  his  brother-in-law  was  implicated  in  a 
plot;  he  therefore  invited  him  to  dinner  and  after  they 
had  dined,  asked  how  his  guest  had  enjoyed  the  meal. 
"Very  well,"  was  the  answer.  "I  am  glad  of  that," 
said  Heureaux,  "for  I  am  about  to  have  you  shot.  Take 
a  cigar,"  he  added  pleasantly,  "it  will  be  your  last." 
And  it  was,  for  the  execution  followed  at  once.  On 
another  occasion,  so  the  story  goes,  after  he  had  become 
president,  a  prominent  general  was  his  guest  and  after 
dinner  they  took  a  stroll.  Coming  to  a  place  in  the 
suburbs  where  workmen  were  digging  a  peculiar  trench, 
the  general  inquired,  "What  are  they  digging  here?" 
"They  are  digging  your  grave,"  answered  Heureaux, 
and  before  the  general  could  recover  from  his  consterna- 
tion a  squad  of  soldiers  appeared.  He  was  shot  and 
buried  then  and  there.  The  governor  of  Macoris  and 
the  minister  of  war  were  both  powerful  men  whose 
influence  was  feared  by  Heureaux.  He  therefore  cun- 
ningly wrought  up  the  latter  against  the  former  to  such 
an  extent  that  one  fine  morning  the  minister  suddenly 
appeared  in  Macoris  and  had  the  governor  summarily 
shot.  An  outcry  was  made  by  the  governor's  friends, 
and  Heureaux,  affecting  indignation  at  the  act,  had 
the  minister  of  war  executed.  Many  of  his  prisoners 
mysteriously  disappeared,  and  popular  rumor  points 


72  SANTO  DOMINGO 

out  one  of  the  lower  platforms  of  the  fort  "La  Fuerza," 
where  an  aguacate  tree  formerly  grew,  as  the  place 
where  prisoners  were  shot  at  night,  their  bodies  being 
thrown  to  the  sharks  at  the  base  of  the  cliff.  Some  of 
the  dictator's  suspects  were  assassinated  in  the  public 
streets.  Even  exiles  were  not  secure  from  his  wrath 
and  in  one  instance  a  Dominican  writer  named  Eu- 
genio  Deschamps,  who  had  been  publishing  articles 
against  him  in  Porto  Rico,  was  seriously  wounded  in 
the  streets  of  Ponce  by  an  assassin's  bullet. 

Ability  and  unscrupulousness,  courage  and  cruelty, 
resolution  and  cunning  were  mingled  in  the  character 
of  Heureaux.  Over  the  country  he  exercised  the  powers 
of  an  absolute  monarch.  He  was  the  fountain  head  of 
all  government  and  the  real  chief  of  every  department. 
The  accounts  of  the  government  and  his  private  ac- 
counts were  treated  by  him  as  one  and  the  same  thing. 
His  ambition  to  remain  in  power  necessitated  the  ex- 
penditure of  large  sums  which  he  obtained  through 
improvident  foreign  loans  and  usurious  contracts  with 
local  merchants.  Those  whom  he  favored  grew  rich; 
his  enemies  he  ruined.  In  other  ways  also  his  morals 
swerved  from  the  straight  and  narrow  path,  and  an 
isolated  town  gloried  in  the  distinction  of  being  the 
only  place  in  the  Republic  where  the  president  did  not 
have  a  mistress.  He  himself  stated  that  he  had  no 
concern  as  to  what  history  would  say  of  him,  since  he 
would  not  be  there  to  read  it. 

During  the  latter  part  of  Heureaux's  administra- 
tion the  leaders  of  the  opposition  were  recognized  as 
Juan  Isidro  Jimenez  and  Horacio  Vasquez.  Vasquez 
was  the  chief  of  a  large  landholding  family  of  the 
Cibao.  Jimenez  had  been  a  prominent  merchant,  at 
one  time  carrying  on  mercantile  houses  in  Monte 
Cristi,  New  York,  Paris  and  Hamburg;  his  family  had 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  73 

formerly  been  prominent  in  Dominican  affairs,  his 
father  having  been  president  of  the  Republic  in  1848 
and  his  grandfather  one  of  the  leading  spirits  of  the 
revolution  by  which  the  Haitian  yoke  was  thrown  off. 
Jimenez  was  born  in  Santo  Domingo  City  in  1846  and 
as  a  boy  went  to  Haiti  with  his  father,  growing  up  in 
Port-au-Prince.  As  a  youth  he  removed  to  Monte 
Cristi,  where  he  established  himself  in  business  and 
took  part  in  the  War  of  the  Restoration  against  the 
Spaniards.  Having  quarreled  with  Heureaux,  he  re- 
sided for  a  number  of  years  in  Cape  Haitien,  Haiti,  and 
from  there  directed  conspiracies  against  the  dictator. 

In  May,  1898,  Jimenez  made  a  bold  attempt  to  over- 
throw the  Heureaux  government.  He  fitted  out  a 
small  steamer,  the  "Fanita,"  in  the  United  States  and 
left  ostensibly  to  aid  the  Cuban  insurgents;  and  as  the 
United  States  was  then  at  war  with  Spain  the  expedi- 
tion was  not  opposed  by  the  American  government. 
A  landing  was  made  at  Monte  Cristi  with  only  twenty- 
five  men,  a  general  uprising  being  expected  as  soon  as 
his  arrival  became  known.  Jimenez'  followers  took 
the  town,  but  the  governor  of  the  district  was  able 
to  escape  to  the  country  and  returned  with  a  large 
force,  driving  Jimenez  back  to  his  vessel  with  a  loss  of 
one-half  of  his  companions.  The  "  Fanita  "  had  touched 
in  the  Bahamas  on  the  way  down  and  on  returning  to 
Inagua  Island,  Jimenez  was  arrested  by  the  British 
authorities  as  a  filibuster.  Heureaux  sent  a  man-of- 
war  to  Nassau  and  did  all  he  could  to  have  the  case 
pressed.  Jimenez  was  tried  twice;  at  the  first  trial  the 
jury  did  not  agree,  and  the  second  time  he  was  ac- 
quitted. 

Though  popular  hatred  against  Heureaux  was  strong 
on  account  of  his  tyrannical  conduct  and  his  attempts 
to  compel  the  circulation  of  a  large  issue  of  incon- 


74  SANTO  DOMINGO 

vertible  bank  notes  with  which  he  flooded  the  country, 
the  fear  in  which  he  was  held  prevented  any  general 
uprising.  There  were  many,  however,  among  them 
Horacio  Vasquez,  who  never  ceased  conspiring  against 
the  dictator.  When  it  became  known  that  Heureaux 
was  resolved  to  bring  about  Vasquez'  death,  Ramon 
Caceres,  a  cousin  of  Vasquez,  and  other  members 
of  the  Vasquez  clan,  were  drawn  into  the  conspir- 
acies. The  father  of  Caceres,  once  vice-president  under 
Baez,  had  been  killed,  it  is  said,  by  order  of  Heu- 
reaux. In  July,  1899,  when  Heureaux  prepared  for 
a  trip  through  the  Cibao,  he  was  informed  of  a  plot  to 
kill  him  on  the  way.  When  he  arrived  in  Moca  he 
thought  that  no  danger  awaited  him  there,  as  he  ex- 
pected that  if  any  attack  were  to  be  made  on  him  it 
would  be  at  some  solitary  portion  of  the  road  and  not 
in  a  town  in  broad  daylight.  When  about  to  leave 
Moca  on  July  26,  1899,  he  ordered  the  governor  of  the 
province  to  arrest  Caceres  and  his  companions.  Caceres 
was  informed  of  the  order  by  the  secretary  of  the 
governor,  who  was  his  friend,  and  knowing  that  the 
arrest  would  probably  be  followed  by  an  execution, 
with  several  companions  he  repaired  to  a  store  where 
Heureaux  was  talking  with  the  proprietor,  the  provin- 
cial treasurer.  As  soon  as  Heureaux  appeared  in  the 
doorway  Caceres  began  to  shoot,  and  the  other  con- 
spirators continued  firing,  although  the  first  shot  had 
been  fatal.  Heureaux  before  falling  drew  his  revolver 
and  returned  the  fire,  but  the  darkness  of  death  clouded 
his  vision  and  the  shots  went  wild,  one  of  them,  how- 
ever, killing  a  beggar  to  whom  he  had  a  few  moments 
before  given  alms.  Caceres  and  his  companions  fled  to 
the  mountains,  and  the  body  of  Heureaux  was  taken 
to  Santiago,  where  it  was  afterwards  interred  in  the 
cathedral.  Juan  Wenceslao  Figuereo,  vice-president  of 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  75 

the  Republic,  an  aged  negro,  succeeded  to  the  pres- 
idency. 

The  death  of  Heureaux  precipitated  a  revolution 
headed  by  General  Horacio  Vasquez.  President 
Figuereo  made  no  resistance,  but  at  the  end  of  August 
resigned,  together  with  his  cabinet,  first  designating  a 
committee  of  citizens  to  administer  affairs  until  the 
arrival  of  Vasquez,  who  entered  the  capital  on  Septem- 
ber 5,  1899,  and  became  the  head  of  the  provisional 
government.  Jimenez  in  the  meantime  hastened  to  the 
country  and  was  everywhere  received  with  rejoicing. 
The  two  leaders  arranged  that  Jimenez  should  become 
president  and  Vasquez  vice-president,  and  an  election 
was  held  on  October  20,  by  which  this  result  was  at- 
tained, the  inauguration  taking  place  November  20, 
1899.  Ramon  Caceres,  the  slayer  of  Heureaux,  was 
made  governor  of  Santiago  and  delegate  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  Cibao. 

The  Jimenez  administration  was  the  reaction  of  that 
of  Heureaux.  It  deserved,  more  than  any  the  Republic 
had  had  up  to  that  time,  the  name  of  civil  and  con- 
stitutional government.  The  executive  was  not  abso- 
lute, as  in  the  time  of  Heureaux,  nor  were  there  san- 
guinary executions.  Almost  too  little  restraint  was 
exercised,  and  the  press,  so  long  muzzled,  began  to 
convert  its  liberty  into  license.  Jimenez,  too,  was  so 
good-hearted  that  at  times  he  yielded  to  importunities 
which  had  better  been  resisted.  The  financial  problems 
left  by  the  Heureaux  administration  caused  considerable 
trouble  and  though  the  waste  of  the  public  revenues  was 
curtailed,  large  sums  were  still  absorbed  in  the  payment 
of  revolutionary  claims  and  of  pensions  for  local  military 
chiefs. 

Jealousies  soon  ripened  between  Jimenez  and  Vas- 
quez, who  was  known  to  long  for  the  presidency  and 


76  SANTO  DOMINGO 

had  only  temporarily  laid  aside  his  aspirations  on  ac- 
count of  the  overwhelming  popularity  of  Jimenez. 
Each  of  the  chiefs  collected  a  group  of  friends  about 
him  and  in  this  way  originated  the  still  existing  political 
parties,  Jimenistas  and  Horacistas,  the  respective  fol- 
lowers of  Jimenez  and  Horacio  Vasquez.  Several  minor 
uprisings  occurred  but  were  suppressed  by  the  govern- 
ment. In  the  beginning  of  1902  the  Dominican  Con- 
gress, which  was  composed  largely  of  Vasquez'  friends, 
considered  the  advisability  of  impeaching  President 
Jimenez  on  account  of  the  financial  transactions  of  the 
administration,  and  a  vote  of  censure  was  finally  passed. 
Jimenez  believed  Vasquez  at  the  bottom  of  the  agitation 
and  endeavored  to  have  the  municipalities  protest 
against  the  action  of  Congress.  Rumors  became  cur- 
rent that  Jimenez  intended  to  imprison  his  vice- 
president  and  thus  insure  his  own  reelection.  Vasquez, 
urged  on  by  his  friends,  therefore  started  a  revolution 
in  the  Cibao,  and  after  a  fight  in  San  Carlos  and  a 
four  days'  siege  of  the  capital  entered  Santo  Domingo 
City  on  May  2,  1902,  and  became  president  of  a  provi- 
sional government.  Jimenez  sought  refuge  in  the 
French  consulate  and  embarked  for  Porto  Rico  a  few 
days  later. 

General  Horacio  Vasquez  was  born  in  Moca  and  was 
a  ranchman,  merchant  and  planter.  He  possessed 
military  capacity  and  took  a  minor  part  in  several 
revolutions.  At  first  a  friend  of  Heureaux,  he  after- 
wards became  one  of  his  bitterest  enemies,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  lived  as  an  exile  in  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  returning  to  Moca  shortly  before  the  death  of 
Heureaux  to  remain  in  retirement  on  his  plantation. 
The  Vasquez  administration  had  as  much  difficulty 
with  financial  matters  as  that  of  his  predecessor,  but 
the  president  had  little  opportunity  to  show  what  he 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  77 

could  do.  Local  outbreaks  began  in  Monte  Cristi  and 
became  general  in  October,  1902.  Disturbances  con- 
tinued until  March  24,  1903,  when,  during  the  absence 
of  President  Vasquez  in  the  Cibao,  the  political  prison- 
ers in  the  fort  of  Santo  Domingo  City,  through  con- 
nivance with  the  general  in  charge,  broke  out,  took  the 
fort,  liberated  the  convicts,  threw  the  city  into  a  panic 
with  a  continued  fusillade,  and  proclaimed  a  revolution. 
They  were  for  the  most  part  Jimenistas  and  "Lilicis- 
tas,"  or  members  of  the  old  Heureaux  party,  and  their 
candidate  for  the  presidency  would  probably  have  been 
Jimenez;  but  in  Jimenez*  absence  the  presidency  was 
offered  to  Figuereo  and  others,  who  declined,  and  was 
finally  accepted  by  Alejandro  Woss  y  Gil,  who  had  only 
the  week  before  been  liberated  from  the  same  political 
prison. 

General  Vasquez  returned  with  an  army,  arriving 
before  Santo  Domingo  City  at  the  end  of  March.  The 
ensuing  siege  was  one  long  battle,  during  which  a 
portion  of  the  suburban  town  of  San  Carlos  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  On  April  18,  1903,  Generals  Alvarez 
and  Cordero,  the  best  generals  of  the  besiegers,  made  a 
violent  attack  on  the  city  and  effected  an  entrance,  but 
fighting  continued  in  the  streets  and  these  leaders  and 
most  of  the  storming  party  were  killed.  Vasquez  there- 
upon fled  to  Santiago,  resigned  his  post,  and  left  the 
country  for  Cuba.  On  the  triumph  of  his  party  a  year 
later,  he  returned  to  Santo  Domingo  and  retired  to  his 
plantation  in  Moca. 

Woss  y  Gil,  who  thus  became  president  of  the  provi- 
sional government,  called  a  session  of  Congress  and  by 
appointments  favorable  to  his  interests  so  intrenched 
himself  that  his  continuance  as  president  became  as- 
sured. Jimenez,  who  arrived  shortly  after,  advanced 
the  claim  that  he  was  still  president  de  jure,  since  the 


78  SANTO  DOMINGO 

constitutional  term  of  four  years  for  which  he  had  been 
elected  had  not  expired,  and  he  denominated  the  Vas- 
quez  government  a  temporary  and  illegal  usurpation  of 
power.  In  his  efforts  to  regain  office  he  sent  his  friend 
Eugenic  Deschamps  to  treat  with  Gil,  but  Deschamps, 
seeing  Gil  obdurate,  made  an  agreement  by  which  Woss 
y  Gil  was  to  become  president  and  Deschamps  vice- 
president.  Jimenez  was  obliged  to  yield  to  the  in- 
evitable and  returned  to  Porto  Rico  in  the  hope  of 
eventually  succeeding  Woss  y  Gil.  An  election  was 
held  in  which  Woss  y  Gil  and  Deschamps  were  the 
only  candidates  and  on  June  20,  1903,  they  were  in- 
augurated. 

In  General  Alejandro  Woss  y  Gil  the  Republic  had  a 
very  talented  man  as  president.  Born  in  Seibo,  he  had 
entered  politics  in  his  youth,  and  became  a  friend  and 
follower  of  Heureaux.  At  times  he  was  governor  of  a 
province,  later  for  a  long  period  Dominican  consul  at 
New  York,  and  from  1885  to  1887  president  of  the 
Republic.  He  had  received  a  good  education  and 
traveled  extensively,  spoke  several  modern  languages, 
had  some  knowledge  of  the  classic  languages,  and  was  a 
poet,  musician  and  writer. 

Unfortunately  the  talents  of  Woss  y  Gil  did  not  ex- 
tend to  the  securing  of  an  honest  and  efficient  adminis- 
tration. The  ministers  appointed  by  him  were  ex- 
ceedingly injudicious  selections,  and  a  carnival  of  fraud 
and  dishonesty  was  soon  in  progress.  Discontent  grew 
general,  and  by  the  end  of  October,  1903,  General 
Carlos  F.  Morales,  governor  of  Puerto  Plata,  raised  the 
standard  of  revolt  and  his  troops  marched  on  the  capital. 
The  revolution  was  supported  by  both  parties,  the 
Jimenistas  and  Horacistas,  and  was  known  as  the 
"war  of  the  union."  Morales,  the  leader  of  the  in- 
surrection, had  been  a  follower  of  Jimenez  and  favored 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  79 

the  aspirations  of  the  latter  to  the  extent  even  of  sending 
requests  to  Jimenez  to  come  to  Santo  Domingo  at  once. 
The  siege  of  Santo  Domingo  City  lasted  for  about 
three  weeks.  On  November  24,  1903,  Woss  y  Gil, 
finding  himself  vanquished,  permitted  Morales'  troops 
to  enter  the  city  and  sought  refuge  in  the  British  con- 
sulate. Three  days  later  a  German  man-of-war  carried 
him  to  Porto  Rico,  and  he  later  continued  to  Cuba, 
where  he  long  resided  in  the  city  of  Santiago. 

For  a  short  time  a  tripartite  revolution  was  in  prog- 
ress, the  supporters  of  Woss  y  Gil,  Horacio  Vasquez  and 
Jimenez  fighting  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Morales,  on  entering  Santo  Domingo,  became  president 
of  the  provisional  government.  The  new  governors  of 
the  Cibao  were  Jimenistas,  but  most  of  the  appoint- 
ments Morales  made  in  the  south  were  Horacistas,  and 
it  began  to  be  suspected  among  the  Jimenez  followers 
that  he  had  designs  on  the  presidency.  When  Jimenez 
arrived  in  Santiago  he  realized  that  his  ambitions  were 
again  endangered  and  he  and  his  friends  grew  restless. 
On  December  6,  1903,  Jimenez  fled  from  Santiago  to 
Monte  Cristi,  claiming  that  Morales  had  sent  a  troop  of 
fifty  men  to  assassinate  him. 

A  counter  revolution  followed  at  once  and  swiftly 
attained  large  proportions.  It  became  the  most  serious 
unsuccessful  revolution  the  Republic  had  seen.  At  one 
time  the  whole  country  was  in  the  hands  of  Jimenez 
except  Santo  Domingo  City  and  the  small  port  of 
Sosua,  near  Puerto  Plata.  The  government  forces  were 
able  to  retake  Puerto  Plata,  but  the  siege  of  the  capital 
continued  uninterruptedly  from  December  to  February. 
Attacks  and  sallies  were  frequent,  every  house  along 
the  walls  and  in  the  suburbs  soon  showed  bullet  marks 
and  the  town  of  San  Carlos  was  again  partially  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  Finally  Morales  defeated  the  besiegers, 


80  SANTO  DOMINGO 

and  in  March,  Macoris  was  taken  by  the  government 
forces  and  the  backbone  of  the  revolution  was  broken. 
The  insurrection  had  spent  itself  on  account  of  lack 
of  supplies  and  efficient  leaders.  Jimenez,  financially 
ruined  by  his  attempts  to  reestablish  himself  in  power, 
again  withdrew  to  Porto  Rico.  The  government  forces 
were  unable  to  retake  the  Monte  Cristi  district,  but  an 
agreement  was  reached  by  which  the  Jimenista  au- 
thorities remained  in  full  control  and  the  district  be- 
came practically  independent. 

An  election  was  held,  as  a  result  of  which  Car- 
los F.  Morales  became  president  and  Ramon  Caceres 
vice-president,  and  they  were  inaugurated  on  June  19, 
1904.  The  new  president,  Morales,  was  an  unusually 
clever  man,  although  his  conduct  sometimes  betrayed 
that  he  came  from  a  family  in  which  there  had  been 
mental  derangement.  He  was  born  in  Puerto  Plata, 
studied  for  the  priesthood,  took  orders,  and  held  the 
office  of  parish  priest  in  various  places  in  the  Cibao. 
After  the  death  of  a  brother  who  participated  in 
Jimenez'  ill-fated  "Fanita"  expedition  and  was  killed 
in  the  attack  on  Monte  Cristi,  Morales  took  an  interest 
in  public  affairs  and  during  the  administration  of 
Jimenez  became  a  member  of  Congress.  At  this  time  he 
laid  aside  his  religious  habit,  married,  and  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  politics.  During  the  Vasquez 
administration  he  was  an  exile  in  Cuba,  but  on  the 
ascendancy  of  Woss  y  Gil  he  was  made  governor  of 
Puerto  Plata,  and  in  this  capacity  initiated  the  revolt 
against  the  Gil  government. 


CHAPTER  VI 

HISTORICAL    SKETCH. AMERICAN    INFLUENCE. 1904  TO 

DATE    (1918) 

Financial  difficulties. — Fiscal  convention  with  the  United  States. — Caceres* 
administration. — Provisional  presidents. — Civil  disturbances. — Jim- 
enez' second  administration. — American  intervention. 

The  enormous  foreign  and. internal  debt  left  by  the 
Heureaux  administration  had  been  constantly  increased 
by  ruinous  loans  to  which  the  succeeding  governments 
were  obliged  to  resort  during  the  years  of  civil  warfare, 
until  the  country  was  in  a  condition  of  hopeless  bank- 
ruptcy. In  the  beginning  of  1904  every  item  of  the 
debt  had  been  in  default  for  months. 

Under  pressure  from  foreign  governments,  the  prin- 
cipal debt  items  due  foreign  citizens  had  been  recog- 
nized in  international  protocols  and  the  income  from 
each  of  the  more  important  custom-houses  was  specif- 
ically pledged  for  their  payment,  but  in  no  case  was 
payment  made.  One  of  these  protocols,  signed  with  the 
American  charge  d'affaires,  liquidated  the  government's 
accounts  with  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Com- 
pany, which  had  been  turned  out  from  the  administra- 
tion of  custom-houses  by  President  Jimenez,  and  pro- 
vided for  a  board  of  arbitration  to  settle  the  manner  of 
payment.  The  arbitrators  determined  the  instalments 
payable  and  specified  the  custom-house  of  Puerto 
Plata  and  certain  others  as  security,  which  were  to  be 
turned  over  to  an  American  agent  in  case  of  failure  to 
pay.  No  payment  being  made,  the  American  agent 
demanded  compliance  with  the  arbitral  award  and  on 


82  SANTO  DOMINGO 

October  20,  1904,  was  placed  in  possession  of  the 
custom-house  at  Puerto  Plata. 

The  other  foreign  creditors,  principally  French, 
Belgian,  and  Italian,  naturally  began  to  clamor  for  the 
payment  of  their  credits  and  for  the  delivery  of  the 
custom-houses  pledged  to  them.  To  have  done  so 
would  have  meant  absolute  ruin,  as  the  government 
would  have  been  entirely  deprived  of  means  of  sub- 
sistence. In  face  of  the  imminent  likelihood  of  foreign 
intervention  the  Dominican  government  applied  to  the 
United  States  for  assistance,  and  in  February,  1905,  the 
protocol  of  an  agreement  between  the  Dominican 
Republic  and  the  United  States  was  approved,  pro- 
viding for  the  collection  of  Dominican  customs  revenues 
under  the  direction  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
segregation  of  a  specified  portion  toward  the  ultimate 
payment  of  the  debt.  The  treaty  was  submitted  to  the 
United  States  Senate,  but  that  body  adjourned  in 
March,  1905,  without  final  action.  The  creditors  again 
became  importunate  and  an  interim  modus  vivendi  was 
therefore  arranged,  under  which  the  Dominican  customs 
were  to  be  collected  by  a  receiver  designated  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  the  proportion 
mentioned  in  the  pending  treaty  was  reserved  as  a 
creditors'  fund.  The  temporary  arrangement  went 
into  effect  on  April  I,  1905,  and  the  effect  was  imme- 
diately apparent.  Confidence  was  restored,  the  cus- 
toms receipts  rose  to  higher  figures  than  ever  before, 
and  the  prospects  of  peace  became  brighter  as  revolu- 
tionists could  no  longer  count  on  captured  custom- 
houses to  replenish  their  exchequer. 

The  position  of  President  Morales  was  a  difficult  one. 
He  was  an  ex-Jimenista  at  the  head  of  an  Horacista 
government,  and  there  was  no  sympathy  between  him 
and  his  council.  The  Horacistas  distrusted  him  and 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  83 

forced  him  to  dismiss  his  friends  from  the  cabinet  and 
to  make  distasteful  appointments.  Seeing  that  he  was 
being  reduced  to  a  figurehead,  Morales  secretly  tried 
to  form  a  party  for  himself  or  make  arrangements  with 
the  Jimenistas  who  for  months  had  been  conspiring  and 
threatening  to  rise.  The  friction  became  more  severe 
until  Morales,  fearing  that  both  his  office  and  his  life 
were  in  danger,  on  the  day  before  Christmas,  1905, 
fled  from  the  capital,  while  the  Jimenistas  rose  in  Monte 
Cristi  and  marched  down  to  attack  Santiago  and 
Puerto  Plata. 

It  was  the  anomalous  spectacle  of  a  president  lead- 
ing an  insurrection  against  his  own  government.  For- 
tune was  against  the  insurgents  from  the  beginning. 
Morales,  while  trying  to  scale  a  rocky  wall  near  the 
Jaina  River,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital,  fell  and 
sprained  his  leg,  so  that  he  was  unable  to  proceed  fur- 
ther but  was  obliged  to  remain  in  hiding  in  the  woods, 
suffering  much  pain.  In  the  Cibao,  important  dispatches 
of  the  revolutionists  were  captured  by  the  government 
forces,  which  were  thus  enabled  to  make  surprise  at- 
tacks. The  insurgents  attacked  Puerto  Plata  under 
their  best  general,  Demetrio  Rodriguez,  an  intelligent 
mulatto,  and  would  probably  have  taken  the  town,  had 
not  Rodriguez  received  a  bullet  in  the  temple,  where- 
upon his  men  became  panic-stricken  and  dispersed. 
Morales  saw  that  all  was  lost  and  returned  to  the  cap- 
ital, where  he  went  to  the  American  legation  for  pro- 
tection. On  the  following  morning,  January  12,  1906, 
with  his  foot  bandaged  and  tears  rolling  down  his 
cheeks,  he  wrote  out  his  resignation.  He  was  imme- 
diately conveyed  to  Porto  Rico  on  an  American  cruiser. 
The  triumph  of  the  government  was  complete,  its 
troops  overran  Monte  Cristi,  and  an  Horacista  was 
made  governor  of  the  district.  Morales  fixed  his 


84  SANTO  DOMINGO 

residence  in  the  island  of  St.  Thomas  and  later  in 
France.  He  continually  conspired  for  a  return  to  the 
presidency,  and  was  once  tried  for  filibustering  in 
Porto  Rico,  but  acquitted.  A  friendly  administration 
made  him  Dominican  minister  in  Paris,  where  he  died 
in  1914. 

Upon  the  resignation  of  Morales  the  vice-president, 
General  Ramon  Caceres,  assumed  the  presidency. 
Caceres  was  born  in  Moca  on  December  15,  1867,  and 
was  a  prominent  cacao-planter.  It  was  he  who  killed 
Heureaux  in  1899,  after  which  he  entered  public  life, 
being  governor  of  Santiago  and  delegate  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  Cibao  during  the  administrations  of  Jimenez 
and  Vasquez,  an  exile  in  Cuba  during  the  administra- 
tion of  Woss  y  Gil,  and  vice-president  and  govern- 
mental delegate  during  the  administration  of  Morales. 
He  had  the  appearance  of  an  honest  country  squire, 
large  of  body  and  great  of  heart. 

During  the  years  1906  and  1907  special  attention  was 
given  to  the  settlement  of  the  debts  of  the  republic. 
A  new  bond  issue  of  $20,000,000  was  made  for  the 
purpose  of  converting  the  old  debts,  and  an  arrange- 
ment was  effected  with  the  principal  creditors,  by  which 
the  amounts  due  were  reduced  by  about  one-half. 
Instead  of  the  still  pending  convention  of  February, 
1905,  with  the  United  States,  a  new  fiscal  treaty  was 
agreed  upon,  and  approved  by  the  United  States 
Senate  and  the  Dominican  Congress,  taking  effect  on 
August  i,  1907.  In  similarity  with  the  provisions  of 
the  modus  vivendi,  the  customs  income  of  the  Republic 
is  collected  by  a  General  Receiver  of  Dominican  Cus- 
toms, appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
and  a  portion  of  the  income  is  set  aside  by  him  for  the 
service  of  the  loan. 

For  years  the  various  governments  had  been  planning 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  85 

to  revise  the  constitution  of  1896,  Vasquez  even  calling  a 
constitutional  convention;  but  the  political  kaleidoscope 
turned  before  such  intentions  could  be  realized.  Con- 
ditions becoming  sufficiently  stable,  a  new  constitution 
was  promulgated  on  September  9,  1907.  It  was  found 
unsatisfactory  and  a  constitutional  convention  met  in 
Santiago  and  on  February  22,  1908,  promulgated  the 
present  constitution,  by  which  the  presidential  term 
was  lengthened  to  six  years  and  the  office  of  vice- 
president  abolished.  An  election  was  held  and  General 
Ramon  Caceres  was  chosen  president,  entering  upon 
his  new  term  on  July  I,  1908. 

As  a  result  of  the  Dominican-American  fiscal  arrange- 
ment the  old  debt  was  practically  all  canceled,  burden- 
some concessions  were  redeemed,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  surplus  from  the  new  bond  issue  was  set  aside  for 
public  works,  of  which  several  were  undertaken.  A  few 
uprisings  by  dissatisfied  chiefs  remained  local  and 
unsuccessful.  A  border  clash  with  Haiti,  which  in 
January,  1911,  caused  the  dispatch  of  troops  to  the 
frontier,  was  settled  by  diplomacy.  The  hope  of  con- 
tinued peaceful  conditions  gave  a  new  impulse  to 
agriculture,  industry  and  commerce,  and  the  exports 
and  imports  increased  year  by  year. 

At  a  time  when  the  future  seemed  brightest,  the 
Republic  was  suddenly  startled  by  the  news  of  the 
assassination  of  President  Caceres  on  Sunday  after- 
noon, November  19,  1911.  The  president,  with  a  single 
companion,  was  returning  from  a  drive  along  the  new 
road  to  San  Geronimo.  At  Guibia,  a  suburb  of  the 
capital,  a  number  of  conspirators  rushed  for  the  car- 
riage, seized  the  reins  of  the  horse  and  began  to  shoot. 
The  president's  companion  fled,  but  Caceres,  a  fearless 
man  and  an  excellent  shot,  returned  the  fire.  Almost 
simultaneously  a  bullet  shattered  his  right  wrist.  The 


86  SANTO  DOMINGO 

coachman  lashed  the  horse  in  an  attempt  to  escape,  but 
the  horse  reared  and  threw  the  carriage  against  a 
hedge.  The  coachman  then  dragged  Caceres  from  the 
carriage  and  assisted  him  to  the  stable  of  a  house  on  the 
roadside,  adjoining  the  American  legation,  but  the 
conspirators  meantime  continued  to  fire  furiously  and 
several  shots  struck  the  president.  Seeing  their  object 
accomplished,  the  assassins  withdrew,  and  the  president, 
mortally  wounded,  was  carried  to  the  American  lega- 
tion, where  he  expired  a  few  minutes  later. 

The  conspirators  were  a  handful  of  malcontents  led 
by  General  Luis  Tejera,  a  young  man  of  prominent 
family,  at  one  time  governor  of  the  capital  under 
Caceres,  but  lately  estranged.  Caceres  had  known  of 
Tejera's  seditious  sentiments  but  refused  to  take  them 
seriously.  Immediately  after  the  shooting,  the  con- 
spirators hastened  away  in  a  waiting  automobile,  carry- 
ing with  them  their  leader  Tejera,  who  had  been 
wounded  in  the  leg  during  the  affray.  At  the  Jaina 
ferry  the  automobile  was  accidentally  precipitated  into 
the  river,  and  the  wounded  man  was  fished  out  half 
drowned.  The  other  conspirators  left  him  in  a  hut  by 
the  road  and  escaped.  Tejera  was  found  by  the  pur- 
suers, taken  to  the  fort  in  Santo  Domingo  City,  and 
summarily  executed. 

The  commandant  of  arms  of  the  capital,  General 
Alfredo  M.  Victoria,  who  controlled  the  military 
forces,  permitted  his  own  ambitions  to  influence  him 
more  than  the  welfare  of  his  country.  Being  only 
twenty-six  years  old,  he  was  not  of  the  constitutional 
age  to  be  president,  but  listening  to  the  counsel  of 
scheming  politicians,  he  dominated  the  situation  by 
force  of  arms  and  brought  about  the  selection  of  his 
uncle,  Eladio  Victoria,  as  provisional  president.  The 
latter  was  a  senator  from  Santiago  province,  and  had 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  87 

at  one  time  been  a  member  of  Caceres'  cabinet,  but  he 
was  not  regarded  as  of  presidential  calibre  and  his 
selection  provoked  general  surprise  and  indignation. 
General  Victoria's  army  was  a  potent  argument;  it 
withered  the  ambition  of  other  aspirants  to  the  pres- 
idency, and  Senator  Victoria  was  elected  provisional 
president  and  entered  upon  office  December  6,  1911. 
In  the  following  February  the  usual  form  of  public 
election  was  gone  through  and  on  February  27,  1912,  he 
took  the  oath  of  office  as  constitutional  president.  His 
nephew  occupied  important  cabinet  positions  under 
the  new  administration. 

The  general  opposition  to  President  Victoria  and  to 
the  method  of  electing  him  found  expression  in  revolu- 
tionary uprisings  throughout  the  country,  especially 
in  the  Cibao  and  Azua.  Ex-President  Vasquez,  ex- 
President  Morales  and  several  Jimenista  generals  took 
the  field  independently.  Morales  was  captured,  but 
the  others  continued  the  fight.  Beginning  early  in 
December,  1911,  the  war  dragged  on  for  months,  both 
sides  sustaining  heavy  losses  and  extensive  sections  of 
the  country  being  devastated. 

It  became  apparent  that  there  was  a  deadlock,  the 
government  being  powerless  to  subdue  the  revolution- 
ists, while  the  revolutionists  were  unable  to  carry  on  an 
active  campaign  against  the  government.  The  Amer- 
ican government  eventually  extended  its  good  offices 
with  a  view  to  the  reestablishment  of  peace  and  order. 
A  special  commission  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States  and  consisting  of  an  official  of  the  War 
Department  and  another  of  the  State  Department  ar- 
rived in  Santo  Domingo  in  October,  1912,  and  initiated 
a  series  of  conferences  with  government  and  revolu- 
tionary leaders.  An  agreement  was  concluded  and  in 
accordance  therewith  the  Dominican  Congress  assem- 


88  SANTO  DOMINGO 

bled  on  November  26,  1912,  accepted  the  resignation  of 
President  Victoria,  and  elected  the  archbishop  of  Santo 
Domingo,  Monsignor  Adolfo  A.  Nouel,  as  provisional 
president  for  a  period  of  two  years.  He  was  inducted 
into  office  on  December  I,  1912. 

Archbishop  Nouel,  a  man  of  great  learning,  beloved 
and  respected  throughout  the  country,  entered  upon  his 
duties  with  the  announced  purpose  of  giving  an  impar- 
tial administration  and  governing  with  both  parties. 
The  difficulties  of  the  plan  were  soon  impressed  upon 
him,  particularly  as  he  relied  entirely  upon  moral 
suasion  to  carry  his  policies  into  effect.  Pressure  was 
applied  for  favors  which  he  could  not  grant,  his  ap- 
pointments were  bitterly  criticised  as  savoring  of 
nepotism  or  as  unduly  favoring  one  side  or  the  other, 
and  some  of  the  fiercer  military  chiefs  assumed  a 
menacing  attitude.  Sick  and  disgusted,  Monsignor 
Nouel  resigned  the  presidential  office  on  March  31, 1913, 
and  embarked  for  Europe. 

The  Dominican  Congress  immediately  considered  the 
choice  of  a  temporary  successor  and  after  many  ballots 
elected  a  compromise  candidate,  General  Jose  Bordas 
Valdez,  an  Horacista  senator  from  Monte  Cristi,  as 
provisional  president  for  a  period  of  one  year.  He  as- 
sumed office  April  14,  1913.  His  designation  did  not 
please  the  Jimenistas,  and  the  Horacistas  also  became 
hostile  when  it  appeared  that  President  Bordas  con- 
templated forming  a  party  of  his  own.  His  opponents 
promptly  rose  in  the  Cibao  and  took  possession  of  the 
ports  of  Puerto  Plata,  Sanchez  and  Samana,  which  were 
thereupon  blockaded  by  the  government  forces.  In 
the  latter  part  of  September,  1913,  the  revolutionists 
laid  down  their  arms  on  the  promise  of  the  American 
minister  that  free  elections  for  presidential  electors  and 
members  of  a  constitutional  convention  would  be  guar- 


FOUR  PROMINENT  DOMINICANS 

Above,  left:  JUAN  ISIDRO  JIMENEZ,  President  1899-1902,  1914-16,  founder 
of  the  Jimenista  Party.  Above,  right:  HORACIO  VASQUEZ,  President 
1902-03,  founder  of  the  Horacista  Party.  Below,  left:  FEDERICO  VELAZ- 
QUEZ, who  as  Minister  of  Finance  effected  the  1907  debt  adjustment, 
founder  of  the  Progresista  Party.  Below,  right:  Monsignor  ADOLFO  A, 
NOUEL,  Archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo,  President  1912-13. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  89 

anteed.  A  municipal  election  was  in  fact  held,  but 
President  Bordas,  alleging  that  conditions  were  too 
unsettled  for  a  general  presidential  election,  held  on  as 
president  de  facto  beyond  the  term  for  which  he  had 
been  provisionally  elected.  On  the  day  his  term  ended, 
April  13,  1914,  another  revolution  broke  out  and  rapidly 
spread  to  all  parts  of  the  Republic.  Puerto  Plata  was 
occupied  by  the  insurgents  and  blockaded  for  several 
months  by  government  vessels,  the  blockade  being 
accompanied  by  a  siege  of  the  city  under  the  direction 
of  the  president  himself.  On  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
surgents laid  siege  to  the  capital.  The  government 
contracted  heavy  debts  to  carry  on  the  war  and  the 
commerce  of  the  country  suffered  greatly. 

Again  the  American  government  lent  its  good  offices 
for  the  restoration  of  order.  In  August,  1914,  a  com- 
mission of  three  delegates  of  the  United  States  arrived 
in  Santo  Domingo  to  present  a  plan  for  the  resignation 
of  Bordas,  the  selection  of  a  provisional  president  by 
the  chiefs  of  the  several  political  parties,  a  revision  of 
the  election  law,  and  the  holding  of  general  elections. 
The  plan  was  agreed  to,  President  Bordas  resigned,  and 
Dr.  Ramon  Baez,  a  son  of  former  President  Buenaven- 
tura Baez,  was  elected  by  the  Dominican  Congress  as 
provisional  president  on  August  27,  1914. 

Popular  elections  were  held  in  October,  at  which  there 
were  four  candidates:  ex-President  Juan  Isidro  Jimenez, 
ex-President  Horacio  Vasquez,  ex-Minister  of  Finance 
Federico  Velazquez,  and  a  fourth  of  little  consequence. 
The  Jimenez  and  Velazquez  forces  effected  a  combina- 
tion, as  a  result  of  which  Juan  Isidro  Jimenez  was 
elected  president  a  second  time,  and  took  the  oath  of 
office  on  December  5,  1914. 

For  a  moment  it  seemed  as  though  the  country  was  at 
last  entering  upon  an  era  of  peace  and  prosperity.  The 


90  SANTO  DOMINGO 

government  made  efforts  to  solve  the  financial  problems 
left  by  the  recent  civil  wars  and  to  resume  public  im- 
provements. Investments  of  foreign  capital  increased, 
and  agriculture  and  commerce  expanded. 

The  elements  of  disorganization  were  present,  how- 
ever, in  as  strong  a  degree  as  ever.  Corruption  was 
general  in  the  administration  of  the  public  funds,  but 
attempts  at  reform  had  no  result  further  than  to  stim- 
ulate violent  opposition.  The  old  leaven  of  sedition 
was  at  work,  and  disgruntled  military  chiefs  found  a 
willing  leader  in  the  minister  of  war,  General  Desiderio 
Arias,  a  chronic  revolutionist  from  Monte  Cristi,  who 
had  for  years  used  the  popularity  of  Jimenez  as  a  cloak 
for  his  own  aspirations.  The  president,  aged  and  in- 
firm, was  unable  to  meet  the  situation  with  energy,  and 
disinclined  to  adopt  severe  measures. 

In  the  early  part  of  1916  Arias  had  his  friends  in 
Congress  vote  to  impeach  President  Jimenez  for  alleged 
frauds.  The  matter  was  still  under  discussion,  and  the 
president  was  ill  at  his  country  place  on  the  San  Cris- 
tobal road,  near  Santo  Domingo  City,  when  in  April, 
1916,  General  Arias  suddenly  seized  the  military  con- 
trol of  the  capital  and  issued  a  proclamation  by  which 
he  practically  deposed  Jimenez  and  assumed  the  execu- 
tive power  himself. 

Another  civil  war  was  imminent  when  deliverance 
came  in  an  unexpected  manner.  For  many  years  past 
in  previous  disturbances,  one  or  both  of  the  warring 
factions  had  looked  to  the  United  States  government 
for  help  in  restoring  order,  and  diplomatic  assistance 
had  time  after  time  put  an  end  to  strife.  The  endless 
succession  of  revolts  had  at  length  exhausted  the 
patience  of  the  American  government.  In  the  face  of 
another  general  war  with  its  attendant  destruction  of 
life  and  property,  harm  to  American  and  other  foreign 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  91 

interests,  and  danger  of  international  complications 
(a  British  and  a  French  man-of-war  were  already 
solicitously  hovering  off  the  capital),  the  American 
government  took  decisive  action.  With  the  consent  of 
President  Jimenez,  it  landed  marines  at  old  San  Gero- 
nimo  castle,  on  the  Guibia  road,  near  Santo  Domingo 
City. 

Though  Jimenez  approved  of  this  action  and  recog- 
nized that  his  country  could  not  emerge  from  the  slough 
of  revolution  without  American  assistance,  he  was 
depressed  at  the  condition  of  affairs,  and  in  view  of  his 
physical  feebleness  felt  himself  unequal  to  the  task  of 
guiding  the  country  through  impending  difficulties. 
He  therefore  on  May  6,  1916,  resigned  the  presidency  of 
the  Republic,  and  subsequently  returned  to  Porto  Rico 
to  live.  The  council  of  ministers  temporarily  assumed 
the  administration. 

Arias,  dismayed  at  the  action  of  the  United  States, 
made  protest,  but  the  American  government  refused 
to  admit  the  legality  or  sincerity  of  his  conduct.  Its 
troops  advanced  on  Santo  Domingo  City  and  Rear- 
Admiral  Caperton,  the  American  commander,  gave 
Arias  twenty-four  hours  to  evacuate.  He  promptly 
obeyed,  and  on  May  15  the  Americans  occupied  the 
city. 

American  troops  continued  to  be  landed,  at  Puerto 
Plata  on  June  5;  at  Monte  Cristi  on  June  19;  and  at 
other  seaports  as  necessity  demanded,  until  a  total  of 
about  1800  marines  had  been  disembarked.  They 
proceeded  into  the  interior,  taking  over  the  preservation 
of  public  order  and  disarming  the  inhabitants.  They 
advanced  on  foot,  in  improvised  motor  trucks,  and  as 
real  "horse  marines,"  in  accordance  with  a  plan  to 
secure  thorough  pacification  by  having  them  appear  in 
all  parts  of  the  country. 


92  SANTO  DOMINGO 

The  American  marines  met  with  no  serious  opposi- 
tion except  in  the  Cibao,  in  the  section  between  Monte 
Cristi,  Puerto  Plata  and  Santiago,  where  the  following 
of  Arias  was  strongest.  To  clear  this  section  two 
columns  were  launched  from  the  seacoast  with  Santiago 
as  the  objective,  the  first  of  800  men  from  Monte 
Cristi,  the  second  of  about  200  men  from  Puerto  Plata, 
the  entire  force  being  under  command  of  Brigadier- 
General  Joseph  H.  Pendleton.  The  expeditionary  force 
from  Monte  Cristi,  under  Colonel  Dunlop,  advanced 
along  the  highway,  which  was  little  more  than  a  muddy 
trail  through  a  jungle  of  cactus  and  thorny  brush,  and 
several  Americans  were  shot  from  ambush.  Repeat- 
edly small  detachments  of  rebels  made  a  stand  upon 
some  favorable  piece  of  ground,  until  routed  by  the 
marines.  The  decisive  encounter  took  place  on  July  i, 
1916,  at  Guayacanes,  near  Esperanza,  where  a  force  of 
400  marines  after  a  stubborn  fight  carried  a  strongly 
entrenched  position  defended  by  about  300  rebels. 
The  American  losses  were  I  enlisted  man  killed  and  I 
officer  and  7  enlisted  men  wounded;  the  rebels  are 
estimated  to  have  lost  several  score  between  killed  and 
wounded,  their  leader,  Maximito  Cabral,  being  killed 
fighting  in  the  trenches  after  all  his  men  were  dead  or 
driven  off. 

The  second  column,  from  Puerto  Plata,  under 
Major  Bearss,  opened  up  the  railroad,  encountering  its 
principal  resistance  at  the  tunnel  south  of  Altamira. 
The  two  columns  joined  forces  at  Navarrete  and  then 
occupied  Santiago.  All  the  insurgents  eventually  dis- 
persed or  surrendered,  and  Arias  himself  submitted  to 
the  American  military  control,  which  became  absolute 
throughout  the  country.  The  total  American  losses  in 
occupying  the  country  were  3  officers  killed  and  3 
wounded  and  4  enlisted  men  killed  and  12  wounded;  the 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  93 

losses  of  the  insurgents  are  estimated  at  between  100 
and  300  killed  and  wounded. 

The  Dominican  Congress  proceeded  on  July  25, 1916, 
to  elect  a  temporary  president,  and  chose  Dr.  Francisco 
Henriquez  Carvajal,  a  distinguished  physician  and 
highly  cultured  man.  It  was  understood  that  he  was  to 
hold  for  six  months  and  was  not  to  seek  reelection  at  the 
general  election  to  be  held  within  that  time.  The 
United  States  government,  however,  was  loath  to  ex- 
tend recognition  unless  assured  that  Santo  Domingo 
would  enter  upon  a  path  of  order  and  progress.  The 
fiscal  treaty  of  1907  had  not  secured  the  peace  expected 
of  it;  the  prohibition  against  the  contracting  of  further 
indebtedness  had  been  frequently  violated;  disorder  and 
corruption  had  continued;  and  the  American  govern- 
ment deemed  its  task  uncompleted  if  it  should  sur- 
render the  country  to  the  same  chaotic  conditions. 
It  accordingly  required,  as  a  condition  of  recognizing 
Henriquez,  that  a  new  treaty  between  the  two  countries 
be  adopted,  similar  to  the  recently  approved  treaty 
between  the  United  States  and  Haiti,  where  a  series  of 
revolutions  culminating  in  a  massacre  of  prisoners  had 
the  year  before  obliged  the  American  government  to 
intervene.  The  principal  features  of  this  treaty  were 
the  collection  of  customs  under  American  auspices, 
the  appointment  of  an  American  financial  adviser,  and 
the  establishment  of  a  constabulary  force  officered  by 
Americans. 

Henriquez,  jealous  of  his  country's  sovereignty  and 
fearful  that  the  proposed  arrangement  would  make  the 
Dominican  government  a  puppet  controlled  by  all- 
powerful  and  not  sufficiently  responsible  American 
officials,  refused  to  accede  to  the  American  demands. 
The  American  authorities  thereupon  declined  to  pay 
over  any  of  the  Republic's  revenues  to  a  government 


94  SANTO  DOMINGO 

which  they  did  not  recognize.  Inasmuch  as  they  not 
only  collected  the  customs  and  port  dues,  but  had 
assumed  control  of  the  other  revenues  as  well,  the  Hen- 
riquez  government  was  left  penniless.  Nevertheless, 
the  American  demands  continued  to  be  rejected.  As  a 
result,  no  salaries  were  paid  in  any  part  of  the  Republic; 
the  officials  who  continued  in  their  duties  did  so  with 
the  hope  of  being  compensated  at  some  future  date; 
some  services,  such  as  the  mail  service,  were  discon- 
tinued almost  entirely;  and  the  whole  machinery  of 
the  government  was  paralyzed. 

This  tension  and  anomalous  condition  lasted  for 
several  months.  As  the  term  for  which  Henriquez  had 
been  elected  drew  to  a  close,  it  became  evident  that  he 
had  no  idea  of  retiring  from  the  presidency,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  intended  to  hold  general  elections,  in  which 
he  expected  to  be  the  successful  candidate.  The  dead- 
lock thus  threatened  to  continue  indefinitely,  and  the 
American  government  thereupon  determined  to  cut  the 
Gordian  knot. 

On  November  29,  1916,  Captain  (later  Rear-Admiral) 
H.  S.  Knapp,  of  the  United  States  navy,  commander  of 
the  American  cruiser  force  in  Dominican  waters,  and 
of  the  forces  of  occupation  of  the  Dominican  Republic, 
issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  the  Dominican  Re- 
public under  the  military  administration  of  the  United 
States.  The  proclamation  recited  that  the  Dominican 
Republic  had  failed  to  live  up  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  1907;  that  the  American  government  had  patiently 
endeavored  to  aid  the  Dominican  government,  but  that 
the  latter  was  not  inclined  or  able  to  adopt  the  measures 
suggested,  wherefore  the  American  government  be- 
lieved the  time  at  hand  to  take  steps  to  assure  the 
execution  of  said  Convention  and  to  maintain  domestic 
tranquillity  in  the  Republic.  He  therefore  declared  that 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  95 

the  Dominican  Republic  was  placed  in  a  state  of 
military  occupation  by  the  forces  under  his  command; 
that  the  object  of  the  occupation  was  not  to  destroy 
Dominican  sovereignty,  but  to  restore  order;  that 
Dominican  laws  were  to  continue  in  effect  so  far  as 
they  did  not  conflict  with  the  objects  of  the  occupation 
or  the  decrees  of  the  military  government;  that  the 
Dominican  courts  were  to  continue  in  their  functions, 
except  that  offenses  against  the  military  government 
were  to  be  judged  by  military  courts;  and  that  all  the 
revenues  of  the  Dominican  government  were  to  be 
paid  over  to  the  military  government,  which  would 
administer  the  same.  He  called  on  all  inhabitants  to 
cooperate  with  the  forces  of  the  United  States. 

The  military  government  so  established  took  full 
possession  of  the  country.  The  chiefs  of  the  executive 
departments  not  having  appeared  in  their  offices,  their 
posts  were  declared  vacant  and  filled  with  officers  of  the 
American  navy.  In  the  country  at  large,  there  was 
little  open  opposition,  and  such  as  appeared  was  sup- 
pressed without  difficulty.  The  inhabitants  quickly 
reconciled  themselves  to  the  situation,  realizing  that 
it  was  to  the  best  interests  of  their  country.  Dr.  Henri- 
quez,  the  ex-president,  left  for  Cuba  in  the  early  part  of 
December. 

The  military  government  thereupon  proceeded  to 
organize  the  finances,  to  pay  arrears  of  salaries,  to 
subdue  several  bandits  who  refused  allegiance,  and  to 
confiscate  all  arms.  Absolute  order  and  security, 
greater  than  have  prevailed  in  Santo  Domingo  since 
colonial  days,  were  soon  established.  The  military 
government  then  devoted  itself  to  the  construction  of 
public  works,  especially  roads,  the  organization  of  a 
police  force,  and  in  general  to  the  improvement  of  the 
country. 


g6  SANTO  DOMINGO 

After  the  Washington  government  determined  to 
participate  in  the  European  war,  the  American  military 
governor  on  April  12,  1917,  connected  Santo  Domingo 
with  the  war  by  canceling  the  exequaturs  of  the  German 
consular  representatives  in  the  Dominican  Republic; 
there  was  no  formal  rupture,  as  no  diplomatic  represen- 
tative of  either  country  was  at  the  time  residing  in  the 
other.  German  residents  were  subjected  to  surveillance 
by  the  American  authorities. 

The  Dominican  Republic  is  still  (January,  1918) 
being  administered  by  American  naval  officers  and  the 
work  of  reorganization  continues.  Eventually — in  all 
likelihood  after  the  European  war — the  government  is 
to  be  turned  back  to  the  Dominican  people,  and  it  is 
probable  that  such  devolution  will  be  under  conditions 
that  will  assure  a  stable  government,  peace  and  prog- 
ress. 


CHAPTER  VII 

AREA    AND    BOUNDARIES 

Area  of  Republics  of  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo. — Boundary  disputes. — 
Harbors  on  north  coast. — Character  of  shore. — Samana  Bay. — Char- 
acter of  east  and  south  coast. — Harbors  of  Macoris  and  Santo  Domingo. 
— Ocoa  Bay. — Islands. — Haitian  frontier. 

Of  the  great  chain  of  islands  which  extends  in  a  vast 
semi-circle  from  the  southern  coast  of  Florida  to  the 
northeastern  coast  of  Venezuela,  the  second  largest  is 
the  Island  of  Haiti  or  Santo  Domingo,  situated  midway 
between  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  and  lying  between 
latitude  17°  36'  40"  and  19°  58'  20"  north  and  longitude 
68°  1 8'  and  74°  51'  west  of  Greenwich.  The  island  is 
bounded  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  north,  the  Mona 
Channel  on  the  east,  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  south, 
and  the  Windward  Passage  on  the  west.  The  nearest 
point  of  Porto  Rico  is  54  miles  distant,  of  Cuba  50 
miles,  of  Jamaica  90  miles  and  of  Venezuela,  the  nearest 
country  on  the  South  American  continent,  480  miles. 
The  distance  from  Puerto  Plata,  on  the  north  coast  of 
the  island,  to  New  York  is  1255  miles,  to  Havana  710 
miles,  and  to  Southampton  3925  miles.  The  distance 
from  Santo  Domingo  City  to  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  is 
230  miles,  to  La  Guayra  500  miles,  and  to  Colon  810 
miles. 

The  island  is  divided  between  two  political  entities, 
the  western  one,  comprising  one-third  of  its  surface, 
being  the  Republic  of  Haiti,  while  the  eastern  one  is 
popularly  known  as  Santo  Domingo  or  San  Domingo, 
though  it  is  officially  termed  the  Dominican  Republic. 


98  SANTO  DOMINGO 

These  two  republics  present  at  once  interesting  re- 
semblances and  contrasts.  They  are  separated  by  no 
natural  bounds;  their  soil,  resources,  and  political  con- 
ditions are  similar;  but  while  in  Haiti  the  language  and 
historical  associations  are  French  and  the  numerically 
predominant  race  stock  is  black,  in  Santo  Domingo,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  language  and  historical  associations 
are  Spanish,  and  the  mulatto  rather  than  the  black  is 
most  in  evidence. 

The  area  of  the  island  is  generally  stated  at  28,249 
square  miles,  of  which  Haiti  is  credited  with  10,204 
square  miles  and  the  Dominican  Republic  with  18,045 
square  miles.  Since  no  part  of  the  island  has  ever  been 
carefully  surveyed,  such  figures  can  be  regarded  as  only 
approximately  correct.  The  Dominican  Republic  is 
therefore  about  as  large  as  the  States  of  New  Hampshire 
and  Vermont  together,  less  than  half  as  large  as  Cuba 
and  more  than  five  times  the  size  of  Porto  Rico. 

In  the  above  estimate  of  the  area  of  the  two  Repub- 
lics no  account  is  taken  of  their  reciprocal  claims  to 
further  lands.  Each  claims  about  1500  square  miles 
occupied  by  the  other.  The  Dominicans  affirm  they 
have  a  right  to  the  plain  of  Hinche  and  St.  Raphael, 
comprising  some  of  the  finest  agricultural  lands  on 
the  island.  They  contend  that  Haiti  is  entitled  only 
to  the  territory  embraced  in  the  confines  of  the  old 
French  colony  of  Saint-Domingue.  Under  the  treaty  of 
Aranjuez,  of  June  3,  1777,  the  boundaries  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  colonies  on  the  Island  of  Santo  Domingo 
were  carefully  defined  and  marked  by  monuments. 
In  1795  the  Spanish  colony  was  ceded  to  France;  but 
when  in  1804  the  Haitians  declared  the  independence  of 
the  island,  they  were  able  to  control  little  more  than 
the  old  French  portion,  most  of  the  old  Spanish  portion 
remaining  in  the  possession  of  France.  The  boundary 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  99 

line  remained  unchanged  when  the  old  Spanish  portion 
again  came  under  the  rule  of  Spain  in  1809.  In  1822 
Haitian  rule  was  extended  over  the  entire  island,  but 
in  1844,  when  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  portion 
proclaimed  their  independence  their  declaration  com- 
prised the  whole  of  the  old  Spanish  part  of  the  island. 
The  Haitian  government  made  strenuous  efforts  to 
reconquer  the  revolting  provinces,  with  the  final  result 
that  it  was  able  to  retain  and  still  retains  1500  square 
miles  more  than  belonged  to  the  former  French  colony. 
This  is  the  portion  still  claimed  by  Santo  Domingo. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Haitians,  based  on  alleged 
boundary  conditions  and  tentative  arrangements  in 
1856  and  1874,  claim  a  strip  of  land  now  occupied  by 
Santo  Domingo  lying  along  the  border  and  also  aggre- 
gating about  1500  square  miles.  Maps  published  in 
Haiti  always  show  the  boundary  line  from  five  to  forty 
miles  further  east  than  it  is  in  reality. 

Arbitration  has  repeatedly  been  suggested  to  deter- 
mine the  boundary,  and  efforts  were  made  in  1895  to 
submit  the  question  to  the  Pope  and  in  1911  to  resort  to 
The  Hague,  but  without  success. 

The  Haitians  have  not  only  peopled  and  carefully 
guarded  the  territory  controlled  by  them,  but  have 
attempted  to  push  the  frontier  further  east  toward  the 
line  they  claim.  In  1911  and  a  year  later,  alleged  en- 
croachments by  Haiti  almost  led  to  war  between  the 
two  countries.  The  United  States  interposed  its  good 
offices  and  in  1912  suggested  as  provisional  boundary, 
until  otherwise  determined  by  mutual  agreement  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  the  line  which  was  observed 
as  boundary  in  1905  when  the  American  receiver  general 
of  customs  took  charge  of  the  frontier  custom-houses. 
Both  countries  agreeing,  the  line  as  suggested  has  since 
been  regarded  as  the  boundary  and  bids  fair  to  become, 


100  SANTO  DOMINGO 

with  perhaps  a  few  unimportant  modifications,  the 
permanent  boundary  between  Haiti  and  Santo  Do- 
mingo. The  outlook  for  arbitration  seems  to  be  no 
better  now  than  heretofore,  nor  is  it  probable  that  any 
court  of  arbitration  would  divest  either  Haiti  or  Santo 
Domingo  of  any  considerable  portion  of  the  lands  they 
have  so  long  possessed. 

The  boundary  disputes  have  not  tended  to  improve 
the  relations  between  the  two  countries,  which  formerly 
regarded  each  other  with  a  hatred  that  has  only  in  the 
past  fifty  years  softened  down  to  mutual  distrust  and 
dislike.  It  has  frequently  happened  that  the  au- 
thorities of  one  country  abetted  insurrections  in  the 
other;  and  it  was  common  practice  for  insurgents  in 
either  country  to  retreat  across  the  border  to  recuperate 
in  the  other.  In  the  Dominican  revolutions  of  1912  to 
1914  several  bands  of  revolutionists  had  permanent 
headquarters  on  the  Haitian  side. 

The  greatest  breadth  of  the  Dominican  Republic, 
from  the  Morro  of  Monte  Cristi  to  Cape  Beata,  is  about 
170  miles,  the  greatest  length,  from  Cape  Engano  to  the 
Haitian  frontier,  about  260  miles.  The  Republic  has  a 
coast  line  of  about  940  miles,  on  which  there  are  several 
good  ports  and  large  bays. 

One  of  these  is  Manzanillo  Bay,  which  lies  at  the 
extreme  northwestern  point  of  the  Republic.  Large 
and  well  protected,  affording  excellent  anchorage  for 
any  class  of  vessels,  it  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  and 
perhaps  the  most  important  point  strategically,  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  island.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Dajabon  or  Massacre  River,  which  constitutes  part 
of  the  boundary  between  Haiti  and  the  Dominican 
Republic,  and  of  the  turbulent  Yaque  del  Norte,  which 
here  forms  a  delta  of  considerable  extent.  Owing  to 
the  proximity  of  Monte  Cristi  the  various  projects  for 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  IOI 

the  establishment  of  a  port  and  custom-house  at  this 
point  have  hitherto  failed  of  realization. 

Fifteen  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Manzanillo  Bay  is 
the  ancient  port  of  Monte  Cristi,  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus, in  his  vessel  the  Nina,  on  his  first  voyage.  The 
great  explorer  landed  here  to  examine  the  plain  near 
the  shore,  and  departed  at  dawn  on  January  6,  1493. 
The  port  of  Monte  Cristi  is  a  large  open  bay  with  a 
fine  roadstead,  but  the  shallow  water  near  the  shore 
obliges  vessels  to  anchor  over  a  mile  from  land.  On  the 
eastern  side  the  harbor  is  sheltered  by  a  high  promon- 
tory now  known  as  El  Morro,  to  which  Columbus  gave 
the  name  of  Monte  Cristi,  after  a  remarkable  profile, 
recalling  the  pictures  of  Christ,  which  is  visible  in  the 
outlines  of  the  mount  to  vessels  entering  the  harbor. 
The  isolated,  treeless  mountain  under  the  usually 
cloudless  sky  of  beautiful  blue  strongly  recalls  the 
buttes  of  our  Western  plains. 

The  range  of  mountains  known  as  the  Monte  Cristi 
Range,  forms  a  background  for  the  entire  northern 
coast  of  the  Republic.  From  Monte  Cristi  for  fifty 
miles  east,  to  the  bay  of  Isabela,  the  shore  is  bleak  and 
barren,  formed  of  rocks  and  cliffs  with  short  intervals 
of  sandy  beach.  Isabela  Bay  is  where  the  first  Spanish 
settlement  in  America  was  laid  out  by  Columbus  in 
1493.  Little  remains  to  mark  the  site,  but  the  white 
palm-fringed  strand  gleams  in  the  sunlight  and  is 
caressed  by  the  blue  waters  just  as  in  Columbus'  day. 
The  harbor  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream  flowing  down  from 
the  mountains  is  small  and  shallow,  but  it  is  occasionally 
visited  by  coastwise  vessels  in  search  of  cargoes  of 
mahogany  and  other  woods  from  the  nearby  hills. 

Thirty  miles  east  of  Isabela  lies  Puerto  Plata.  The 
intervening  coast  possesses  a  few  small  ports  of  little 
importance,  but  sometimes  visited  by  coasting  schoon- 


102  SANTO  DOMINGO 

ers.  The  most  important  one  is  Blanco,  which  during 
the  War  of  the  Restoration  with  the  Spaniards  was  the 
insurgents'  port  of  entry  and  the  base  of  considerable 
illicit  trade  with  Turks  Island.  The  harbor  of  Puerto 
Plata,  the  most  important  city  on  the  north  coast,  is 
formed  by  a  small  bay,  enclosed  on  the  sea  side  by  a 
reef  of  coral  rock.  There  is  plenty  of  depth  within,  but 
little  room,  and  only  three  or  four  large  steamers  can 
with  safety  anchor  here  at  the  same  time.  The  harbor 
is  well  protected  except  on  the  north.  During  gales 
from  that  direction  it  becomes  exceedingly  uncom- 
fortable, and  the  narrow  entrance  channel  quite  dan- 
gerous. Portions  of  wrecks  rising  above  the  foaming 
water  of  the  reef — the  broken  bow  of  one  vessel  and 
ship's  engine  of  another — bear  witness  to  the  perils 
lurking  there  at  such  times.  Near  the  shore  the  harbor 
is  shallow,  and  though  there  is  little  tide,  the  water 
recedes  some  distance.  To  avoid  the  difficulty  there  is  a 
long  pier  for  the  use  of  small  boats  and  it  is  no  longer 
necessary,  as  of  yore,  for  passengers  to  be  carried  ashore 
from  boats  in  the  arms  of  the  boatmen.  A  fine  public 
dock  for  large  vessels  is  also  nearing  completion. 

A  broad  and  fertile  coast  plain  extends  from  Puerto 
Plata  some  twenty-five  miles  to  the  small  port  of  La 
Goleta.  On  this  plain  about  twelve  miles  from  Puerto 
Plata,  lies  the  port  of  Sosua.  La  Goleta  is  a  distributing 
point  for  the  lumber  cut  in  this  district.  A  considerable 
portion  thereof  proceeds  from  the  headwaters  of  the 
nearby  river  Yasica,  being  floated  down  the  river  and 
then  along  the  ocean  shore.  From  the  Yasica  River, 
the  mouth  of  which  is  about  100  feet  wide,  an  uneven 
rocky  stretch  of  coast  extends  in  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion to  Cape  Frances  Viejo,  where  there  is  a  new  light- 
house. Numerous  brooks  traverse  this  region  and  leap 
down  to  the  sea  from  the  rocks,  in  beautiful  cascades 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  103 

often  twenty  and  thirty  feet  in  height.  Near  Cape 
Frances  lies  the  small  town  formerly  called  Tres  Amar- 
ras  and  now  Cabrera.  The  Monte  Cristi  Range  ter- 
minates here,  its  foothills  forming  the  promontories  of 
Cape  Frances  and  Point  Sabaneta.  Travel  along  this 
rugged  part  of  the  coast  is  difficult;  in  order  to  avoid  the 
troublesome  gullies  of  the  shore,  the  trail  often  runs  far 
inland  through  dense  jungle.  The  rocks  are  of  a  con- 
glomerate formation,  and  are  worn  by  the  waves  into 
the  most  fantastic  shapes.  From  the  appearance  of 
the  cliffs  it  seems  that  at  remote  periods  two  distinct 
upheavals  of  the  land  took  place,  the  first  of  which 
formed  the  peaks  which  rise  about  twelve  miles  in  the 
interior,  the  second  and  more  recent  one  giving  origin 
to  the  great  rocks  along  the  coast.  The  precipices  in 
the  interior,  which  in  ages  past  were  washed  by  the 
sea,  rise  to  a  sheer  height  of  from  two  hundred  to  four 
hundred  feet  and  are  crowned  with  trees.  The  rocky 
masses  in  the  coast  forests  are  full  of  clefts  and  caverns 
which  furnish  habitation  to  millions  of  bees. 

The  shore  now  curves  southward  and  becomes  low 
and  sandy.  There  are  low  coast  plains  covered  with 
trees,  especially  groves  of  palm  trees,  which  extend  far 
into  the  interior.  Four  rivers  are  crossed,  which  carry 
comparatively  little  water,  and  the  mouths  of  which 
are  obstructed  by  sand  bars  caused  by  the  prevailing 
north  and  east  winds.  As  a  result  of  these  bars  the 
streams  flood  the  country  and  form  large  stagnant 
lakes,  that  have  effectively  prevented  a  settlement  of 
the  region.  Some  seven  miles  before  reaching  the 
mouth  of  the  Gran  Estero  there  is  a  little  town  called 
Matanzas,  a  kind  of  headquarters  for  turtle  fishermen 
and  which,  though  the  entrance  to  its  bay  is  almost 
closed  by  a  sand  bank,  is  often  visited  by  coasting 
schooners  that  call  for  cacao  from  nearby  plantations. 


104  SANTO  DOMINGO 

What  is  called  the  Gran  Estero  is  a  network  of  bayous 
and  channels,  some  upon  the  surface,  others  subter- 
ranean, which  extends  from  the  Yuna  River  to  the 
ocean  and  traverses  the  marshy  plain  forming  the  neck 
of  the  Samana  peninsula.  It  is  apparent  that  the 
Yuna  River  centuries  ago  emptied  into  the  ocean  and 
that  what  is  to-day  the  Samana  peninsula  was  once  an 
island  separated  by  a  broad  channel  from  the  mainland, 
to  which  it  became  united  by  the  gradual  rise  of  the 
land  and  by  the  alluvium  deposited  by  the  river.  The 
great  swamp  so  formed  is  in  one  place  as  much  as  18 
miles  wide,  and  is  covered  with  stunted  mangrove  trees 
and  rank  weeds  and  bushes.  The  decaying  vegetation 
gives  the  water  of  the  bayous  and  stagnant  ponds  a 
dirty  coffee  color  and  taints  the  air  with  malarial 
miasma.  The  opening  of  channels  and  draining  of  the 
swamp  would  remedy  the  defects,  at  the  same  time 
providing  important  means  of  communication  and  re- 
claiming large  tracts  of  the  richest  agricultural  land. 

From  Matanzas  the  coast  extends  due  east,  closely 
following  the  mountain  range  which  beginning  near 
Port  Jackson  forms  the  backbone  of  the  Samana  penin- 
sula. Spurs  of  the  mountains  rise  precipitously  from 
the  sea  which  foams  at  their  rocky  base,  and  from  the 
summits  to  the  water's  edge  the  country  is  covered  with 
luxuriant  vegetation.  The  few  rocky  coves  along  the 
shore  were  a  favorite  resort  for  buccaneers  in  days  gone 
by.  One  of  them  is  Port  Jackson;  the  entrance  is 
rendered  dangerous  by  a  coral  reef,  but  once  within,  the 
deep  waters  are  always  tranquil  and  offer  good  shelter 
to  the  little  craft  of  the  turtle  fishermen.  Though  the 
waters  of  this  region  are  said  to  teem  with  the  finest 
fish  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  fishing.  Another  cove, 
difficult  of  access  because  of  the  jagged  rocks  near  the 
entrance,  is  Port  Escondido,  or  Hidden  Port,  near  the 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  105 

most  conspicuous  feature  of  this  coast,  the  lofty  promon- 
tory of  Cape  Cabron,  or  Cabo  del  Enamorado,  Lover's 
Cape.  The  easternmost  point  of  the  peninsula  is  the 
rugged  double-terraced  headland  of  Cape  Samana, 
reckoned  as  the  beginning  of  Samana  Bay,  though 
strictly  speaking  the  Bay  begins  at  the  majestic  cliff 
known  as  Balandra  Point. 

This  magnificent  bay,  one  of  the  great  harbors  of  the 
world  and  the  finest  by  far  of  the  West  Indies,  has  ever 
excited  the  admiration  of  travelers.  Securely  sheltered 
against  storms,  of  an  extent  sufficient  to  accommodate 
the  navies  of  the  world,  easily  fortified  and  defended, 
occupying  a  highly  important  strategical  position,  its 
advantages  cannot  be  overestimated.  Samana  Bay,  a 
submerged  extension  of  the  great  valley  of  the  Yuna 
River,  is  thirty-five  miles  in  length  and  from  ten  to 
fifteen  miles  in  width.  Looking  up  the  Bay  from  the 
entrance  no  land  is  descried  on  the  horizon.  Columbus, 
when  he  first  entered,  believed  he  was  on  an  ocean 
channel  dividing  two  islands.  The  north  coast  is  pro- 
tected by  the  low  mountain-range  of  the  Samana 
peninsula,  in  places  resembling  the  Palisades  on  the 
Hudson,  and  the  southern  shore  is  fringed  by  a  chain  of 
hills,  so  that  the  emerald  green  waters  of  the  Bay  are 
perfectly  sheltered  against  all  winds  except  those  from 
the  east.  Even  here  the  effect  of  the  wind  is  modified 
and  it  is  only  during  eastern  gales  that  choppy  waves 
oblige"  small  boats  to  seek  the  coves  along  the  shore. 
About  four  miles  from  Point  Balandra,  is  a  group  of  five 
islets,  known  as  the  Cayos  Levantados.  The  channel 
between  these  Keys  and  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Bay,  2000  yards  in  width  with  a  maximum  depth  of  140 
and  a  minimum  depth  of  50  feet,  constitutes  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  to  the  Bay,  the  only  one  which  is  avail- 
able for  large  vessels.  The  other  channel,  known  as  the 


106  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Half  Moon  Channel,  lies  immediately  south  of  the 
Keys;  but  being  narrow  and  shallow,  is  navigable  only 
by  vessels  of  light  draft.  The  great  expanse  of  water, 
fifteen  miles  in  width,  between  this  channel  and  the 
south  shore  of  the  Bay  is  so  dotted  with  shoals  as  to  be 
absolutely  impassable.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
actual  entrance  to  the  great  Bay  is  quite  narrow  and 
could  easily  be  defended  by  mines  or  by  fortifications 
on  the  Cayos  and  the  peninsula.  The  Bay  is  like  a 
great  bottle  with  a  very  narrow  neck.  The  Spaniards, 
in  fact,  established  a  small  fort  on  the  headland,  its 
ruins  being  now  hidden  by  dense  underbrush. 

It  seems  surprising  that  no  large  and  flourishing 
metropolis  should  have  arisen  on  the  shores  of  this 
splendid  body  of  water.  Apparently  the  principal 
reason  why  it  did  not  appeal  to  the  Spaniards  was  that 
owing  to  the  prevailing  easterly  breezes  their  clumsy 
vessels  would  have  encountered  difficulty  in  leaving. 
Since  the  days  of  steam,  of  course,  this  trouble  is  ob- 
viated. The  value  of  the  Bay  as  a  naval  station  has 
been  widely  advertised,  and  France,  England  and  the 
United  States  have  at  various  times  entertained  pro- 
jects of  acquiring  it.  The  American  government  in 
1869  even  negotiated  a  treaty  for  the  lease  of  Samana 
peninsula  and  Samana  Bay,  but  the  United  States 
Senate  failed  to  act  and  the  treaty  was  lost  by  expira- 
tion of  time.  The  Bay  would  constitute  a  military 
and  commercial  key  to  this  part  of  the  world  for  any 
power  possessing  it. 

Near  Balandra  point  is  the  tiny  settlement  of  Las 
Flechas,  located  upon  the  scene  of  the  first  encounter 
marked  by  bloodshed  between  the  Spaniards  and 
Indians.  A  number  of  Columbus'  men  having  landed 
here  in  January,  1493,  were  attacked  by  Indians  and  in 
the  ensuing  engagement  an  Indian  was  wounded. 


Scenes  on  Samana  Bay 

Above:  One  of  the  many  beautiful  spots  on  the  shores  of  Samana  Bay 
Below:  Partaking  of  cocoanut-water,  a  refreshing  drink  of  the  tropics 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  107 

The  occurrence  induced  Columbus  to  name  the  Bay 
Golfo  de  las  Flechas,  Gulf  of  the  Arrows.  At  the  end 
of  the  main  channel  of  entrance  to  the  Bay  the  north 
shore  is  indented  by  the  large  and  commodious  basin  of 
Clara,  and  about  two  miles  further  to  the  west  is  the 
harbor  of  the  old  city  of  Santa  Barbara  de  Samana,  a 
tranquil  sheet  of  water,  separated  from  the  Bay  proper 
by  several  small  islands,  but  which  can  be  entered  only 
by  vessels  drawing  less  than  twenty  feet.  Beyond 
Samana  the  coast  becomes  a  little  less  steep  and  the 
verdure-covered  mountains  recede  sufficiently  to  give 
room  to  narrow  coast  plains,  thickly  grown  with  cocoa- 
nut  palms.  Along  the  beach  are  landscapes  of  idyllic 
beauty.  Deep  water  extends  up  to  the  shore  and  there 
are  half  a  dozen  points  which  excel  for  landing  places. 
Some  twenty  miles  from  Samana  the  last  offshoots  from 
the  mountains  encompass  the  town  of  Sanchez.  Be- 
yond in  a  large  semi-circle,  the  end  of  the  Bay  is  skirted 
by  the  great  swamp  which  comprises  the  Gran  Estero 
and  the  delta  of  the  Yuna  River. 

The  town  of  Sanchez,  the  terminus  of  the  railroad 
from  La  Vega,  is  an  important  outlet  for  the  products  of 
the  Royal  Plain,  but  though  one  of  the  principal  ports 
of  the  Republic  its  situation  on  Samana  Bay  is  un- 
favorable. Located  where  the  Samana  mountains 
slope  into  the  Gran  Estero,  the  site  is  ill  adapted  for  the 
expansion  of  the  settlement;  the  vicinity  of  the  great 
marsh  is  not  inviting,  though  the  prevailing  eastern 
breezes  serve  to  drive  back  its  noxious  emanations;  and 
the  harbor,  even  now  so  shallow  that  vessels  are  obliged 
to  anchor  a  mile  from  shore,  is  gradually  silting  up  with 
sediment  from  the  Yuna  River.  The  story  goes  that 
the  selection  of  this  unpropitious  spot  for  the  terminus 
of  the  railroad  was  due  to  the  passion  of  a  moment.  A 
tract  of  land  at  Point  Santa  Capuza,  five  miles  down 


108  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  bay,  where  a  level  coast  plain  and  deep  water  up  to 
the  very  shore  invited  the  establishment  of  a  port,  had 
previously  been  chosen.  The  railroad  had  been  ex- 
tended to  this  spot  and  the  foundations  of  the  shops 
were  being  laid  when  the  principal  owner  of  the  road, 
who  was  directing  the  construction  work,  learned  that 
several  of  his  engineers  had  acquired  a  controlling 
interest  in  a  portion  of  the  site  of  the  projected  town. 
The  choleric  Scotchman  immediately  removed  his 
headquarters  to  Las  Canitas,  where  Sanchez  is  now 
located,  and  though  a  vast  amount  of  digging  and 
filling  was  necessary  the  shops  were  erected  here  and  the 
road  to  Santa  Capuza  was  abandoned.  The  railroad 
has  since  purchased,  for  a  song,  almost  all  the  land 
which  caused  the  trouble,  but  as  it  has  only  recently 
expended  £10,000  in  the  extension  of  its  wharf  at 
Sanchez  from  six  to  ten  feet  on  water,  and  made  other 
improvements,  there  is  evidently  no  intention  of  moving 
the  terminus. 

Beginning  at  Sanchez  the  entire  western  shore  of 
Samana  Bay  is  lined  by  swamp  land,  interspersed  with 
the  sandbanks  formed  by  the  various  mouths  of  the 
Yuna.  Turning  east,  the  coast  becomes  almost  in- 
accessible owing  to  the  reefs  and  rocks  which  line  it  and 
constitute  the  beginning  of  low  rocky  ridges  running 
into  the  interior.  This  region,  known  as  "Los  Haitis," 
continues  until  the  Bay  of  San  Lorenzo  is  reached. 
This  capacious  inlet,  the  only  good  harbor  on  the 
southern  coast  of  Samana  Bay  is  almost  completely 
landlocked  by  a  peninsula  extending  across  its  mouth, 
and  affords  good  anchorage.  The  project  of  establish- 
ing a  city  and  free  port  here  was  considered  in  1883  and 
a  comprehensive  concession  was  granted  with  this  object 
in  view,  but  nothing  was  done  and  the  concession  lapsed. 
San  Lorenzo  Bay  is  also  called  Bahia  de  las  Perlas,  from 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  109 

the  pearls  found  in  its  waters  in  the  early  days;  it  is 
related  that  in  1531  five  pecks  were  sent  to  Spain  as  the 
royal  fifth.  On  the  western  side  of  the  bay  are  exten- 
sive and  beautiful  stalactitic  caves,  in  pre-Columbian 
days  the  abode  of  Indians,  and  in  the  seventeenth 
century  a  favorite  resort  for  pirates,  who  were  well  ac- 
quainted with  every  nook  and  inlet  along  the  shores  of 
Samana  Bay.  Some  five  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Bay 
of  San  Lorenzo  lies  the  village  of  Sabana  la  Mar.  So 
shallow  is  the  water  here- that  not  even  small  vessels  can 
approach  near  to  the  low  and  sandy  shore.  The  same 
condition  prevails  along  the  remainder  of  the  southern 
shore  of  Samana  Bay.  Branching  from  the  low  hills 
that  skirt  the  coast  is  the  headland  of  Cape  Rafael  at 
the  end  of  the  Bay,  forming  a  fitting  counterpart  to 
Cape  Samana  on  the  north. 

Turning  southeasterly  along  the  coast  Point  Nisibon 
is  reached,  where  a  calcareous  rock  formation  and 
soil  suitable  for  sugar  planting  begins.  Forty  miles  of 
rocky  shore  intervene  between  this  point  and  Cape 
Engano,  the  easternmost  cape  of  the  island,  with  a  new 
lighthouse,  the  light  of  which  is  visible  twenty  miles 
away.  The  coast  now  leads  southwesterly  to  Point 
Espada,  shaped  like  a  sword,  and  but  twenty-five  miles 
distant  from  the  Island  of  Mona,  a  dependency  of 
Porto  Rico.  Southwest  from  Point  Espada  lies  the 
largest  island  of  the  Dominican  Republic,  the  Island  of 
Saona,  fifteen  miles  long  by  four  miles  wide,  the  low 
hills  of  which  are  covered  with  abundant  vegetation. 
At  the  time  of  the  conquest  it  was  the  home  of  a  nu- 
merous Indian  population;  later  when  owned  by  the 
Jesuits  it  had  well-kept  plantations;  to-day  it  is  almost 
uninhabited.  Not  far  away  are  the  smaller  islands  of 
Catalina  and  Catalinita,  which  possess  valuable  timber 
but  like  Saona  are  uninhabited. 


110  SANTO  DOMINGO 

From  Point  Palmilla  opposite  Saona  Island,  the 
shore-line,  fringed  with  coral  rocks,  turns  northwest  and 
then  due  west.  It  bounds  the  great  flat  region  of 
Santo  Domingo,  and  to  the  traveler  on  passing  ships 
is  the  most  monotonous  part  of  the  coast,  for  in  the 
absence  of  mountains  to  break  the  sky-line,  there  is 
nothing  to  be  seen  but  a  low  palm-crowned  rocky  wall 
with  surf  beating  at  its  base.  The  harbors  are  estuaries 
of  rivers;  those  of  La  Romana,  Soco  and  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris  are  of  this  description. 

San  Pedro  de  Macoris  is  the  principal  port  for  the 
exportation  of  sugar.  Its  harbor  is  commodious,  but 
access  thereto  is  rendered  difficult  by  a  bar  traversed 
only  by  a  narrow  and  tortuous  channel.  Extensive 
harbor  improvements  were  here  undertaken  under  a 
concession  which  caused  considerable  litigation  and 
discussion  until  it  was  redeemed  by  the  government  by 
means  of  the  1907  bond  issue. 

In  the  forty  miles  intervening  between  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris  and  Santo  Domingo  City,  about  the  only  place 
of  interest  is  the  Bay  of  Andres,  midway  between  the 
two  cities,  which  is  the  home  of  innumerable  wild  ducks. 
The  City  of  Santo  Domingo  is  situated  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Ozama  River,  the  mouth  of  which  con- 
stitutes the  city's  harbor.  Since  the  town  was  founded 
four  centuries  ago  the  width  of  the  river  here  seems  to 
have  diminished  by  fully  one-fourth  owing  to  accretion 
along  the  shores.  A  bar  across  the  entrance  renders 
access  impracticable  for  vessels  drawing  more  than 
fifteen  feet  of  water.  This  bar  has  given  considerable 
trouble,  for  at  times  it  has  grown  in  such  manner  as  to 
leave  a  depth  of  but  five  feet.  It  is  now  kept  open  by 
means  of  jetties  and  dredging.  Within  the  bar  the 
river  is  perfectly  smooth  and  vessels  can  without 
trouble  draw  up  to  the  dock,  but  the  roadstead  outside 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  III 

is  generally  very  rough  and  the  embarking  and  dis- 
embarking of  passengers  is  attended  with  experiences 
more  exciting  than  pleasant.  At  this  place  more  than 
one  passenger  has  had  an  involuntary  bath  and  many 
a  piece  of  luggage  lies  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  On  two 
occasions  on  which  I  disembarked  here  in  stormy 
weather  it  seemed  an  even  wager  that  the  boat  would 
be  swamped  before  reaching  the  river  mouth. 

The  wall  of  coral  rock  girding  the  coast  continues  as 
far  as  Point  Palenque,  when  it  is  succeeded  by  sandy 
beach.  This  inhospitable  shore  has  been  the  witness  of 
stirring  episodes,  for  it  was  near  Fort  San  Geronimo 
where  the  American  troops  came  ashore  in  1916;  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Jaina  that  Drake  disembarked  in  1586  to 
accomplish  his  bold  reduction  of  Santo  Domingo  City; 
at  the  cove  of  Najayo  where  Penn  and  Venables  landed 
in  1655  in  their  unsuccessful  descent  upon  the  colony; 
and  near  Port  Palenque  where  a  British  force  under 
Carmichael  landed  in  1809  to  assist  the  Dominicans  in 
retaking  Santo  Domingo  City  from  the  French.  Off 
Point  Palenque,  too,  in  1806  a  British  squadron  under 
Vice-Admiral  Duckworth  defeated  a  French  squadron 
commanded  by  Rear-Admiral  Lessiegues,  forcing  two 
French  ships-of-the-line  ashore  and  capturing  several 
other  vessels.  The  ports  are  all  shallow  and  unshelt- 
ered, but  are  occasionally  visited  by  coasting  sloops  in 
quest  of  timber  and  other  products  of  the  country. 

The  lofty  mountains  which  in  Santo  Domingo  City 
can  be  discerned  on  the  distant  horizon  have  at  Palen- 
que become  more  distinct  and  approached  nearer  to  the 
shore.  On  the  green  plain  which  slopes  from  their  base 
to  the  sea,  white  specks,  glittering  in  the  sun,  betray  the 
presence  of  the  town  of  Bani.  But  little  further  on,  the 
mountains  rise  from  the  very  shore,  their  spurs  in  the 
surf,  their  peaks  capped  by  clouds. 


112  SANTO  DOMINGO 

The  triangular  bay  of  Ocoa,  the  second  largest  of  the 
Republic,  is  now  reached.  Almost  25  miles  in  width  at 
its  mouth  with  a  length  of  some  13  miles,  its  extent 
earned  for  it,  in  olden  days,  the  name  of  Puerto  Hermoso 
de  los  Espanoles,  the  beautiful  port  of  the  Spaniards. 
It  has  plenty  of  water  and  is  well  protected  by  high 
hills  on  both  sides,  but  on  account  of  its  wide  entrance 
becomes  very  rough  in  a  south  wind.  There  are  several 
good  anchorages  along  its  shore,  and  inlets  which  are 
used  as  harbors  by  various  plantations.  At  its  south- 
eastern entrance  is  the  landlocked  body  of  water 
known  as  Caldera  or  Kettle  Bay,  claimed  to  be  the  best 
harbor  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  Republic.  It  is 
separated  from  the  ocean  by  a  long  narrow  tongue  of 
land,  and  being  securely  sheltered  from  all  winds,  its 
surface  is  always  as  placid  as  a  lake.  Caldera  Bay  is 
presumed  to  be  the  harbor  in  which  Columbus  on  his 
fourth  voyage  rode  out  the  great  hurricane  of  1502 
which  demolished  the  infant  city  of  Santo  Domingo 
and  sunk  the  gold  fleet  that  had  just  set  sail  for  Spain. 
This  harbor  was  a  rendezvous  for  the  Spanish  war 
vessels  and  transports  in  1861  when  Spain  resumed  con- 
trol of  Santo  Domingo  and  again  in  1865  when  she 
relinquished  possession.  The  extent  and  depth  of 
Caldera  Bay  are  claimed  to  be  sufficient  to  accommo- 
date the  largest  ships,  but  vessels  seldom  venture  into 
it,  as  the  charts  of  this  part  of  the  coast  are  deficient. 

At  the  upper  end  of  Ocoa  Bay  is  Port  Tortuguero,  the 
harbor  of  the  city  of  Azua,  affording  good  anchorage, 
but  very  rough  in  south  winds.  It  was  the  scene  of  one 
of  the  few  naval  engagements  in  the  history  of  Santo 
Domingo,  for  here  on  April  15,  1844,  two  Dominican 
schooners  sustained  a  drawn  battle  with  three  Haitian 
vessels.  The  surrounding  hills  appear  almost  bare  of 
vegetation  owing  to  the  aridity  of  the  climate.  The 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  113 

only  buildings  at  the  port  are  a  small  custom-house  and 
several  sheds,  the  city  of  Azua  lying  about  three  miles 
inland.  The  former  harbor  of  Azua,  Puerto  Viejo  or 
Escondido,  Old  or  Hidden  Port,  is  a  sheltered  inlet  on 
the  western  side  of  Ocoa  Bay,  but  is  available  only  for 
vessels  of  light  draft. 

Point  Martin  Garcia  where  the  western  side  of  Ocoa 
Bay  is  regarded  as  terminating  also  marks  the  beginning 
of  another  large  bay,  Neiba  Bay,  which  has  the  form  of  a 
cul-de-sac,  with  a  length  of  eighteen  miles  and  an 
average  breadth  of  seven  miles.  It  is  open  to  the 
southeast,  but  in  all  other  directions  is  well  protected  by 
high  mountains.  The  water  is  of  ample  depth  and  there 
are  several  good  anchorages,  the  best  being  the  port  of 
the  small  city  of  Barahona. 

From  Neiba  Bay  to  Cape  Beata  the  coast  waters  are 
shallow  and  are  only  visited  by  small  vessels  which 
come  to  take  away  lumber  or  coffee  from  the  neighbor- 
ing heights.  At  Cape  Beata,  the  southernmost  cape  of 
the  Republic,  the  coast  turns  northwest,  to  the  Peder- 
nales  River,  which  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between 
Haiti  and  the  Dominican  Republic.  Several  small 
bays  indent  this  portion  of  the  shore,  the  one  most 
favorable  for  shipping  being  Las  Aguilas  Bay,  also 
known  as  Bahia  sin  Fondo,  or  Bottomless  Bay.  This 
part  of  the  country,  the  Baboruco  peninsula,  is  very 
sparsely  inhabited.  In  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  it  was  the  abode  of  maroons,  half-savage 
fugitive  slaves  and  their  descendants. 

Four  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Cape  Beata  lies 
Beata  Island,  sloping  down  from  an  elevation  in  the 
south  to  a  long  point  in  the  north.  Its  greatest  length  is 
about  7  miles,  its  maximum  breadth  3  miles,  and  access 
is  difficult  as  the  only  anchorage  is  on  the  eastern  side 
almost  two  miles  from  land.  The  island  is  covered  with 


114  SANTO  DOMINGO 

dense  forests  in  which  wild  cattle  abound.  During  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  island  was  a 
convenient  resort  for  the  pirates  that  infested  the 
Spanish  main;  at  one  time  it  is  said  to  have  contained 
fine  plantations,  but  at  present  it  is  only  occasionally 
visited  by  Dominican  or  Haitian  fishermen. 

Rising  precipitously  from  the  sea,  at  a  distance  of 
about  ten  miles  southwest  of  Beata  Island,  is  a  huge 
bell-shaped  mass  of  rock,  500  feet  in  height,  almost  two 
miles  in  length  and  a  mile  in  width.  It  reminded 
Columbus  of  a  giant  ship  under  full  sail,  wherefore  he 
named  it  Alta  Vela,  or  High  Sail,  sometimes  corrupted 
to  Alto  Velo.  The  valuable  deposits  of  guano  on  the 
rock  induced  a  party  of  Americans  in  1860  to  take 
possession  of  it  in  the  name  of  the  United  States  as 
an  ownerless  guano  island,  but  upon  protest  by  the 
Dominican  authorities  the  American  government 
promptly  recognized  the  superior  rights  of  Santo 
Domingo.  Visible  from  far  out  at  sea,  with  a  lighthouse 
on  its  summit,  the  great  granite  peak  stands  like  a 
sentinel  guarding  the  southern  shore  of  the  Republic. 

On  the  land  side  the  vague  boundary  has  varied 
constantly,  influenced  by  the  conflicting  Haitian  and 
Dominican  claims,  the  greater  or  less  energy  of  the 
border  authorities  on  each  side,  and  the  tendency  of  the 
rapidly  increasing  Haitian  population  to  establish 
homes  in  the  uninhabited  frontier  region  of  Santo 
Domingo.  The  absolute  lack  of  correct  maps  and  the 
rugged  character  of  the  country  make  it  difficult,  even 
on  the  spot,  to  determine  where  the  boundary  line 
should  be  considered  to  run.  In  riding  through  the 
region  about  Lake  Azuei,  I  noticed  some  bad  dents  in 
the  frontier  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that  not  all  the 
boundary  pushing  has  been  done  by  Haitians. 

On  the  frontier  as  provisionally  fixed  by  the  American 


AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES  115 

government  in  1912,  the  Dajabon,  Capotillo  or  Mas- 
sacre River  constitutes  the  northern  end  of  the  bound- 
ary. The  lower  course  of  this  river  is  the  only  part  of 
the  boundary  line  where  Haitian  and  Dominican 
claimants  are  able  to  agree.  In  the  mountains  to  the 
west  of  Restauracion  the  line  jumps  over  to  the  head- 
waters of  the  Libon  River,  which  it  follows  to  the 
upper  Artibonite,  continuing  along  this  river  as  far  as 
Banica.  From  here  it  runs  across  high  mountains  be- 
tween Comendador  and  Hondo  Valle  on  the  Dominican 
side  and  Belladere  and  Savanette  on  the  Haitian  side, 
to  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Azuei,  thence  across  the  lake 
to  the  headwaters  of  the  Pedernales  River — with  an 
indentation  to  give  Haiti  the  post  of  Bois  Tombe — 
and  along  that  river  to  the  sea.  For  the  greater  part 
of  its  extent  the  line  traverses  a  wild  mountainous 
country,  rarely  visited  on  the  Dominican  side,  except 
by  smugglers  or  an  occasional  frontier  guard. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND    CLIMATE 

Mountains. — Valleys  and  plains. — Rivers. — Lakes. — Temperature  and  rain- 
fall.— Hurricanes. — Health  conditions. 

It  is  related  that  an  English  admiral,  in  endeavoring 
to  illustrate  to  George  III  the  topography  of  one  of  the 
West  India  Islands  crumpled  up  a  piece  of  paper  in  his 
hand  and  laid  it  on  the  table  before  the  monarch,  say- 
ing: "That,  sir,  is  the  island."  The  traveler  touring  the 
West  Indies  finds  the  story  following  him  from  place  to 
place.  Among  the  islands  which  claim  to  have  given 
origin  to  the  anecdote  is  Haiti,  and  however  that  may 
be,  such  description  seems  to  apply  admirably.  Rugged 
irregular  mountain  ranges  interspersed  with  valleys 
form  the  greater  part  of  the  surface,  while  in  the  south- 
east a  great  plain  extends  from  the  mountains  to  the 
coast. 

The  mountains  of  the  Dominican  Republic  may  be 
grouped  in  five  principal  ranges,  two  along  the  northern 
coast,  one  in  the  center  of  the  island,  and  two  in  the 
southwest.  They  all  extend  from  east  to  west  and 
present  numerous  offshoots,  especially  the  central  range 
which  is  the  most  important  one  and  comprises  the 
highest  peaks. 

One  of  the  northern  ranges  is  the  short  Samana 
Range,  beginning  at  Cape  Samana,  extending  the 
length  of  the  Samana  Peninsula,  over  thirty  miles,  and 
ending  near  the  Gran  Estero.  The  greatest  altitude 
is  attained  by  Mt.  Pilon  de  Azucar  and  Mt.  Diablo 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  117 

which  are  1900  and  1300  feet  in  height,  respectively. 
This  group  at  first  sight  appears  to  be  an  extension  of 
the  second  chain,  the  Monte  Cristi  Range,  but  its 
geological  formation  proves  it  rather  to  belong  to  the 
great  central  range.  It  was  probably  at  a  remote 
period  an  island  lying  off  from  the  mainland. 

The  other  northern  range  has  its  beginning  near 
Samana  Bay  and  extends  all  the  way  to  Monte  Cristi. 
It  is  known  as  the  Monte  Cristi  Range  though  the 
eastern  portion  is  also  called  the  Sierra  de  Macoris.  It 
sends  several  branches  to  the  coast,  the  most  important 
one  being  that  which  terminates  at  Puerto  Plata.  The 
highest  points  of  the  range  are  Mt.  Diego  de  Ocampo, 
with  an  altitude  of  4000  feet,  Nord  Peak  3500  feet,  and 
Mt.  Murazo  3400  feet.  A  notable  landmark  is  Mt. 
Isabel  de  Torres,  2300  feet  in  height,  which  overlooks 
Puerto  Plata.  Its  head  is  usually  shrouded  in  a  cap  of 
clouds,  and  small  mists  frequently  hover  about  its 
surface.  To  Columbus,  passing  out  at  sea  on  his  first 
voyage,  the  cloudcap  appeared  shining  like  burnished 
silver  in  the  morning  sun.  He  took  it  to  be  snow  until 
closer  investigation  disclosed  its  true  nature,  where- 
upon he  named  the  mountain  Monte  Plata,  or  Silver 
Mount,  and  the  port  at  the  base  was  afterwards  called 
Puerto  Plata.  The  mountain  is  said  to  have  been 
given  its  present  name,  Isabel  de  Torres,  in  honor  of 
the  wife  of  a  prominent  settler,  Diego  de  Ocampo, 
domiciled  in  Santiago  in  the  early  days,  after  whom  the 
great  mountain  near  that  city  was  named.  According 
to  a  local  legend,  this  couple,  although  blessed  with 
worldly  goods,  was  also  mutually  possessed  of  such  a 
nagging  spirit  and  ungovernable  temper  that  a  separa- 
tion became  necessary,  the  husband  remaining  in 
Santiago,  the  wife  removing  to  Puerto  Plata.  When 
leagues  intervened  between  them  their  conduct  was  so 


Il8  SANTO  DOMINGO 

charming  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  two  cities  gave 
their  names  to  the  high  mountains  near  the  respective 
towns.  "  If  you  doubt  the  story,"  the  legend  concludes, 
"there  are  the  mountains  to  prove  it." 

The  principal  mountain  range,  the  Cordillera  Cen- 
tral, begins  at  the  extreme  eastern  point  of  the  island, 
traverses  the  center  of  the  Republic,  crosses  into 
Haitian  territory  and  sinks  into  the  sea  at  Mole  St. 
Nicolas  to  reappear  in  Cuba,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Windward  Passage.  It  constitutes  a  part  of  the 
great  ridge  which  forms  the  backbone  of  all  the  islands 
bounding  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  north.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  Santo  Domingo  the  range  consists 
merely  of  a  chain  of  high  hills  which  rarely  reach  an 
altitude  of  more  than  900  feet,  but  in  the  center  and 
west  of  the  Republic  it  assumes  much  greater  magni- 
tude, sending  out  branches  which  are  important  moun- 
tain chains  in  themselves,  and  several  of  its  peaks  are 
over  6000  feet  in  height.  The  highest  point  in  the 
island  and  in  the  West  Indies  is  Mt.  Tina,  with  an 
altitude  of  10,300  feet,  a  magnificent  outpost  of  that 
branch  of  the  central  range  which  traverses  the  south- 
central  portion  of  the  Republic.  The  next  highest  point 
is  Yaque  Peak,  9700  feet  high,  nearly  at  the  center  of  the 
island.  The  dense  jungle  covering  the  rugged  slopes  of 
these  giants  has  so  far  baffled  the  few  attempts  at  ex- 
ploration of  their  summits.  To  the  west  of  Yaque  Peak 
is  Mt.  Cucurucho,  7400  feet  high,  and  to  the  northwest 
Mt.  Entre  los  Rios,  8000  feet  and  Mt.  Gallo,  8200  feet  in 
height.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  absence  of 
any  careful  measurements,  the  altitudes  given  are  mere 
approximations. 

The  Cordillera  Central  is  peculiar  in  its  numerous 
branches  which  are  often  more  intricate  in  their  ramifi- 
cations and  comprise  loftier  peaks  than  the  parent 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  119 

range.  The  most  important  of  these  branches  are  those 
which  extend  from  Mt.  Banilejo  to  the  southern  coast, 
and  fill  the  district  between  San  Cristobal  and  Azua 
with  a  jumble  of  mountains.  Besides  Mt.  Tina,  already 
mentioned,  their  principal  peaks  are  Mt.  Rio  Grande, 
6900  feet,  overlooking  the  beautiful  Constanza  Valley, 
and  Mt.  Valdesia,  5900  feet  high.  One  of  the  best 
defined  ranges  on  the  south  is  the  Sierra  del  Agua,  which 
runs  south  from  the  Central  Cordillera  to  the  San  Juan 
River.  The  branches  on  the  north  are  even  more 
numerous  and  cover  a  greater  area.  Among  them 
special  reference  may  be  made  to  the  Sierra  Zamba, 
which  runs  parallel  to  the  Yaque  del  Norte  River,  the 
Sierra  de  San  Jose  de  las  Matas,  the  Santiago  Range, 
the  Jarabacoa  Range  and  the  Cotui  Range. 

The  fourth  principal  mountain  range  of  the  Republic, 
the  Neiba  Range,  is  sometimes  classed  as  a  part  of  the 
Cordillera  Central.  It  rises  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Neiba  River  and  runs  west  parallel  with  the  central 
chain,  into  Haitian  territory.  Among  its  principal 
peaks  is  Mt.  Panso,  6200  feet  high.  The  fifth  principal 
range,  situated  in  the  extreme  southwest  of  the  Repub- 
lic, is  known  as  the  Baboruco  Range,  and  sometimes  as 
Maniel  de  los  Negros.  It  begins  at  the  Caribbean  coast 
south  of  Barahona  Bay  and  runs  west  into  Haiti,  form- 
ing an  integral  portion  of  the  mountain  chain  that 
traverses  the  great  peninsula  in  the  south  of  the  Re- 
public of  Haiti. 

These  several  ranges  and  their  offshoots  divide  the 
country  into  a  number  of  distinct  regions,  which,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  communication,  have  developed 
more  or  less  independently  of  one  another.  The  most 
important  division  is  that  effected  by  the  broad  central 
belt  of  mountains  which,  twelve  miles  wide  in  its 
narrowest  part,  and  extending  from  the  shores  of  the 


120  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Mona  Channel  to  and  beyond  the  Haitian  frontier,  con- 
stitutes a  rugged  barrier  between  the  north  and  the 
south  of  the  Republic. 

The  district  to  the  north  of  the  Central  Cordillera, 
comprising  the  richest  portion  of  the  country,  still 
retains  its  old  Indian  name  "Cibao" — a  word  which 
awoke  fond  hopes  in  the  heart  of  Columbus  who  iden- 
tified it  with  "Cipango,"  the  Japan  he  was  so  eagerly 
seeking.  The  Cibao  includes  the  northern  slope  of 
the  central  range  with  the  fertile  valleys  enclosed  by 
branches  of  that  range,  the  Samana  peninsula,  the 
Monte  Cristi  Range  with  its  valleys  and  coastal  plains, 
and  particularly  the  magnificent  valley  of  the  Cibao, 
which  lying  between  the  central  chain  and  the  Monte 
Cristi  Range,  extends  all  the  way  from  Samana  Bay 
to  Manzanillo  Bay.  The  length  of  this  remarkable 
valley  is  about  150  miles,  its  average  breadth  is  10  miles 
in  the  northwestern  and  15  miles  in  the  southeastern 
part,  and  it  comprises  the  most  fertile  lands  and  the 
most  populous  interior  towns  of  the  Republic.  The 
highest  part  of  the  valley  is  about  600  feet  above 
sea-level  and  is  situated  at  its  middle  point,  near  the 
city  of  Santiago,  where  a  line  of  low  hills  dividing  the 
valley  into  two  parts  forms  a  watershed  for  its  rivers. 
The  northwestern  of  these  two  sections  is  known  as 
the  Santiago  or  Yaque  valley  and  forms  the  greater 
portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Yaque  del  Norte,  while  the 
southeastern  half,  through  which  the  Yuna  River  flows, 
is  the  superb  Royal  Valley  or  Royal  Plain. 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  views  in  the  Cibao  Valley, 
and  in  the  world,  is  obtained  from  the  historic  eminence 
of  Santo  Cerro,  an  outpost  hill  of  the  central  range, 
situated  about  three  miles  from  the  city  of  La  Vega. 
From  the  foot  of  this  hill  the  great  plain  stretches  into 
the  distance,  meeting  the  azure  sky  on  the  eastern 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  121 

horizon,  and  far  in  the  north  skirting  the  brown  slopes 
of  the  lofty  Monte  Cristi  mountains,  the  more  remote 
peaks  of  which  are  but  faintly  perceptible  in  their 
envelope  of  blue  haze.  A  rich  carpet  of  dark  green 
overspreads  the  plain,  where  lighter  spots  indicate 
patches  of  tilled  land  and  silver  threads  betray  the 
presence  of  streams.  The  cities  of  Moca  and  La  Vega 
are  easily  distinguished  and  on  clear  days  even  San 
Francisco  de  Macoris  can  be  discerned.  Clouds  or 
rainstorms  moving  over  portions  of  the  vast  expanse, 
add  animation  to  the  landscape.  Columbus,  gazing 
out  upon  the  enchanting  scene,  was  so  impressed  by 
its  magnificence  that  he  gave  the  great  vale  the  name  it 
still  bears — La  Vega  Real,  The  Royal  Plain. 

To  the  south  of  the  central  range  the  number  of 
plains  is  greater.  The  largest  expanse  of  level  land  on 
the  island  is  the  great  plain  which  forms  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  the  Dominican  Republic.  It  includes  almost 
the  entire  region  east  of  the  Jaina  River  and  south  of 
the  central  range,  being  about  115  miles  long  by  30 
miles  wide.  This  Eastern  Valley  or  Seibo  Plain,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  is  covered  with  forests  and  broad 
savannas,  the  most  notable  of  which  are  comprised  in 
the  series  of  prairies  known  as  Los  Llanos,  the  Plains. 

Two  smaller  and  irregular  plains  are  the  arid  Bani 
coastal  plain,  lying  between  the  Nizao  River  and  the 
Ocoa,  with  a  length  of  25  miles  and  a  width  ranging  from 
3  to  12  miles,  and  the  Azua  Valley,  winding  from  Mt. 
Numero,  near  the  Ocoa,  to  the  Neiba  River,  a  distance 
of  33  miles  with  a  breadth  of  from  3  to  30  miles. 

The  Neiba  Valley,  situated  in  the  southwestern 
portion  of  the  Republic  between  the  Neiba  and  the 
Baboruco  Mountains  is  more  regular.  It  is  part  of  the 
valley  which  stretches  from  Neiba  Bay,  in  Santo 
Domingo,  to  Port-au-Prince  in  Haiti.  The  Dominican 


122  SANTO  DOMINGO 

portion  is  65  miles  long  by  12  miles  wide,  and  over 
one-half  of  its  area  is  covered  by  the  waters  of  Lake 
Enriquillo.  The  peninsula  south  of  the  Baboruco 
Mountains  is  an  uneven  plateau. 

In  the  very  center  of  the  Republic,  surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  lofty  mountains  of  the  central  group,  is  Con- 
stanza  Valley,  rich  but  to-day  almost  inaccessible. 
No  less  rich,  but  many  times  larger,  is  the  other  interior 
plain,  known  as  the  Eastern  or  Central  Valley,  a  succes- 
sion of  fertile  valleys,  extending  from  the  Neiba  River 
to  St.  Raphael,  almost  115  miles,  with  a  width  of  from 
nine  to  twenty  miles.  The  entire  plain  is  claimed  by  the 
Dominican  Republic,  but  more  than  half  is  in  possession 
of  Haiti. 

All  these  various  valleys  and  plains  enjoy  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  watered  by  a  comprehensive  network 
of  rivers  of  greater  or  less  size.  Many  of  the  streams  are 
navigable  for  miles  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course  by 
boats  and  canoes,  affording  means  of  communication 
to  which  the  wretched  condition  of  the  land  highways 
gives  added  importance. 

The  largest  river  of  the  Republic  is  the  Yaque  del 
Norte,  some  240  miles  in  length,  which  rises  on  the 
slope  of  Yaque  Peak,  describes  a  circuitous  northerly 
course,  receiving  numerous  mountain  affluents,  until 
it  reaches  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of  Santiago  de  los 
Caballeros,  whence,  turning  northwesterly  it  flows 
through  the  Santiago  Valley,  being  reinforced  by  scores 
of  tributaries.  Its  waters  are  finally  discharged  par- 
tially into  Monte  Cristi  Bay  and  partly  through  its 
many  mouthed  delta  into  Manzanillo  Bay.  Detritus 
and  driftwood  brought  down  by  the  river,  for  many 
years  entirely  filled  the  Monte  Cristi  channel,  and  still 
constitute  barriers  which  cause  large  lagoons  to  form 
in  the  delta  and  to  inundate  extensive  tracts  of  rich 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  123 

farmland.  Though  the  bars  at  its  entrance  render  the 
river  inaccessible  for  larger  boats,  it  is  navigable  for 
canoes  over  its  entire  course  in  the  Santiago  Valley. 

Another  large  river  is  the  yellow  Yuna,  which  waters 
the  eastern  part  of  the  Cibao  Valley.  Rising  in  the 
mountains  near  the  center  of  the  Republic,  it  directs  its 
course  to  the  Royal  Plain  where  it  receives  the  waters  of 
the  rapid  Camu,  and  thence  flows  eastwardly  and 
enters  Samana  Bay  through  a  marshy  delta,  its  total 
length  being  over  200  miles.  Part  of  its  waters  find 
their  way  through  the  great  swamp,  the  Gran  Estero, 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Up  to  its  junction  with  the 
Camu,  a  distance  of  some  30  miles,  the  Yuna  is  nav- 
igable by  boats  and  barges,  and  above  the  junction  both 
the  Yuna  and  the  Camu  are  navigable  by  canoes  for 
nearly  30  miles  more  though  there  are  shallow  stretches 
where  the  streams  run  rapidly  and  great  care  is  neces- 
sary. In  former  days,  the  Yuna  was  one  of  the  chief 
outlets  of  the  Cibao;  freight  and  passengers  were 
transported  over  its  course  to  Samana  Bay  and  on  the 
waters  of  the  Bay  to  the  town  of  Samana  where  trans- 
shipment to  larger  vessels  took  place.  With  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  railroad  from  La  Vega  to  Sanchez, 
the  river  has  lost  much  of  its  old-time  importance. 

The  third  largest  river  is  the  Neiba  or  Yaque  del 
Sur,  which  rises  near  the  sources  of  the  Yaque  del  Norte 
and  pursues  a  southerly  direction  for  some  180  miles, 
emptying  into  Neiba  Bay.  The  repetition  of  geo- 
graphical means  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo. Thus  there  are  two  rivers  and  a  mountain 
named  Yaque,  several  mountains  named  Cucurucho,  a 
mountain-range  and  two  cities  named  Macoris  while 
in  a  host  of  minor  instances  rivers,  mountains  and 
districts  in  different  parts  of  the  country  have  identical 
names.  The  repetition  of  names  seems  all  the  more 


124  SANTO  DOMINGO 

curious  as  the  Dominicans  have  not  hesitated  to  change 
historic  names  of  towns  and  streets.  The  Yaque  del 
Sur,  or  Neiba  River,  receives  several  copious  affluents, 
the  largest  one  being  the  San  Juan  River.  Much  of 
the  lumber  exported  at  Barahona  is  floated  down  the 
Yaque  and  the  river  is  navigable  about  20  miles  for  flat- 
bottomed  boats,  though  rapids  and  rocky  ledges  inter- 
pose obstacles. 

The  other  rivers  of  the  southern  part  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo are  much  smaller.  The  principal  one  is  the 
Ozama,  at  the  mouth  of  which  the  capital  city  is  located. 
This  river  is  about  60  miles  in  length  and  carries  a  sur- 
prising amount  of  water.  Being  navigable  by  barges 
for  9  miles  from  its  mouth  and  by  canoes  for  15  miles, 
it  forms  an  important  avenue  of  supply  for  Santo 
Domingo  City.  In  the  three  miles  from  its  junction 
with  the  Isabela  to  the  sea,  its  depth  is  about  24  feet, 
but  over  the  sandbar  at  its  mouth  but  15  feet.  Two 
rivers  in  the  southeastern  peninsula,  the  Macoris  and 
the  Soco  furnish  valuable  outlets  for  the  products  of  the 
sugar  estates  on  their  banks.  A  number  of  Dominican 
streams  offer  peculiarities.  In  the  mountains  there  are 
brooks  which  gush  out  of  the  hillside,  merrily  ripple  on 
for  miles  and  vanish  into  the  ground  as  mysteriously  as 
they  came.  A  number  of  coast  streams  sink  into  the 
sand  of  the  beach,  just  before  reaching  the  ocean.  The 
Brujuelas  River,  which  rises  on  the  edge  of  the  great 
plains,  northwest  of  Bayaguana,  flows  south  25  miles 
through  the  plains  and  disappears  ki  the  ground  a  mile 
from  the  sea.  Most  streams  ordinarily  insignificant 
and  innocent  looking,  are  in  a  surprisingly  short  space 
of  time  converted  by  rains  into  raging  torrents.  The 
most  formidable  of  these  torrential  rivers  is  the  Nizao 
which  flows  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  near  Point  Palen- 
que.  In  the  lower  part  of  this  river's  course  its  bed  is 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  12$ 

about  a  mile  wide,  of  which  only  a  small  portion  is 
covered  by  the  several  branches  of  the  river,  the  re- 
mainder being  taken  up  with  sandbanks,  gravel  beds, 
marshy  tracts  and  stagnant  bayous;  and  so  frequently 
and  erratically  does  the  river  change  its  channels,  and 
to  such  sudden  rises  is  it  subject,  that  the  local  au- 
thorities are  obliged  to  keep  guides  stationed  on  its 
banks  almost  continuously,  in  order  to  direct  travelers 
across. 

The  rapids  and  cascades  of  Dominican  streams  are 
pregnant  with  possibilities,  but  up  to  the  present  time 
they  have  remained  in  their  pristine  condition,  nor  is 
their  energy  utilized  to  drive  a  single  piece  of  ma- 
chinery. The  largest  and  most  beautiful  waterfall  of 
the  island  is  doubtless  that  of  the  Jimenoa  River,  in  the 
mountains  some  ten  miles  south  of  the  city  of  La  Vega, 
where  the  Jimenoa  rushes  over  a  precipice  one  hundred 
feet  in  height,  producing  clouds  of  spray  and  a  roar  that 
can  sometimes  be  perceived  as  far  as  Jarabacoa,  six 
miles  away.  Another  beautiful  fall  is  that  of  the 
Dajabon  River,  on  the  Haitian  frontier,  30  feet  in 
height,  and  there  are  notable  cascades  also  on  the 
Comate  River,  near  Bayaguana,  on  the  great  plains; 
on  the  Nigua  and  Higuero  Rivers,  not  many  miles  from 
Santo  Domingo  City;  on  the  Inova  River,  near  the 
town  of  San  Jose  de  las  Matas;  and  on  the  Guaranas 
River,  on  the  Haitian  frontier  in  the  commune  of  Neiba. 

The  only  lakes  of  any  size  are  two  which  lie  in  the 
Neiba  Valley,  the  larger  one,  Lake  Enriquillo,  being 
comprised  entirely  within  Dominican  territory,  while 
of  the  smaller  one,  variously  called  Etang  Saumatre,  or 
Lake  Azuei,  or  Laguna  del  Fondo,  through  which  the 
frontier  line  passes,  less  than  one-fourth  is  under 
Dominican  jurisdiction.  They  are  both  very  pictur- 
esque, and  with  the  greenish  color  of  their  water  and 


126  SANTO  DOMINGO 

their  arid  mountain  surroundings  recall  portions  of 
Lake  Titicaca  in  Bolivia.  In  stormy  weather  they 
become  as  rough  as  the  ocean.  Lake  Enriquillo  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  last  Indian  cacique  of  the 
Island,  the  romantic  chieftain  Enriquillo,  who  after 
fiercely  resisting  the  Spaniards  finally  in  1533  concluded 
an  honorable  peace  with  them  on  the  island  of  Cabras 
in  the  center  of  this  lake.  The  lake  is  over  70  miles  in 
circumference,  having  a  length  of  about  33  miles  and  a 
width  ranging  from  3  to  9  miles.  Cabras  Island,  6  miles 
long  by  one  in  width,  is  the  home  of  herds  of  goats. 
Lake  Azuei  is  but  15  miles  in  length  with  a  width  of 
from  2  to  7  miles. 

Though  the  two  lakes  are  scarcely  five  miles  apart, 
Lake  Enriquillo  is  102  feet  below  and  Lake  Azuei  56 
feet  above  sea-level.  Both  lakes  receive  the  waters  of 
several  small  fresh  water  creeks,  yet  they  apparently 
have  no  outlet  and  their  water  is  salt,  that  of  Lake 
Azuei  only  slightly,  but  that  of  Lake  Enriquillo  more  so 
than  the  sea.  On  Cabras  Island,  however,  there  is  a 
fresh  water  spring,  and  three  lagoons  to  the  east  and 
south  of  Lake  Enriquillo  also  contain  fresh  water. 
Lake  Azuei  often  shows  the  paradox  of  going  down 
during  the  rainy  season  and  rising  during  the  dry 
season;  the  phenomenon  is  attributed  to  the  presence  of 
springs  at  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  which  are  unusually 
copious  at  the  end  of  the  rainy  season.  Both  lakes 
have  at  least  one  variety  of  ocean  fish,  though  the 
nearest  point  of  the  seacoast  is  some  twenty  miles 
distant;  turtles  abound  in  both  and  there  are  many 
alligators  in  Lake  Enriquillo  and  a  few  in  Lake 
Azuei. 

The  climate  of  Santo  Domingo  is  that  of  the  torrid 
zone  and  is  characterized  by  heat  and  humidity.  Yet 
the  heat  rarely  becomes  as  intense  as  it  sometimes  does 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  127 

in  the  United  States  in  summer  and  the  nights  are 
always  cool  and  pleasant.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  Santo  Domingo  City  is  between  77°  and  78° 
Fahrenheit,  and  the  variation  between  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  hottest  and  coolest  month  is  hardly 
more  than  6°.  The  highest  temperature  recorded  in 
Santo  Domingo  City  in  a  period  of  seven  years  was  95°. 
The  average  highest  temperature  in  July  and  August 
is  between  91°  and  92°.  In  the  mountainous  regions 
of  the  interior  there  is  a  noticeable  difference  in  tempera- 
ture; it  is  necessary  to  sleep  under  a  blanket  every 
night  of  the  year  and  the  temperature  sometimes  falls 
below  the  freezing  point.  The  pleasantest  months  of 
the  year  are  from  December  to  February. 

The  heat  of  the  climate  is  tempered  and  rendered 
bearable  by  cooling  breezes  which  are  seldom  absent. 
During  the  day  the  prevailing  breeze  is  from  the  east, 
but  shortly  after  sunset  a  breeze  sets  in  from  the  inte- 
rior, blowing  out  to  the  ocean,  and  continues  until  after 
sunrise. 

The  heavy  rains  also  tend  to  cool  the  atmosphere. 
The  island  is  so  cut  up  by  mountain  ranges  running  in 
different  directions  that  there  is  no  regular  rainy  season 
for  the  whole  country.  In  the  south,  the  west  and 
the  interior,  the  rainy  season  is  generally  reckoned  as 
lasting  from  April  to  November,  while  in  the  eastern 
section  the  rainy  season  is  from  May  to  December. 
These  seasons  are  not  absolute,  for  at  times  there  are 
heavy  rains  during  what  should  be  the  dry  season, 
while  occasionally  there  are  many  days  of  drouth 
during  the  wet  months.  The  rains  are  rarely  long- 
continued  drizzles,  but  instead  for  several  hours  the 
floodgates  of  heaven  are  opened  wide,  after  which  the 
sky  clears  and  remains  serene  until  the  following  day. 
The  amount  of  rainfall  varies  in  different  parts  of  the 


128  SANTO  DOMINGO 

country,  being  lightest  in  the  arid  districts  of  Monte 
Cristi,  Azua  and  Barahona.1 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  maintained  a 
station  at  Santo  Domingo  City  for  a  number  of  years 
and  from  the  observations  made  the  following  data  are 
compiled : 

OBSERVATIONS  FOR  SANTO  DOMINGO  CITY 


Mean 

tempera- 
ture 
op 

Highest 
tempera- 
ture re- 
corded 
'P 

Lowest 
tempera- 
ture re- 
corded 
"p 

Mean  rel- 
ative hu- 
midity 
per  cl. 

"w    toy, 

inches 

*3t 

January  
February  

74-  •• 

.  .74..  . 

...86.. 

...88.. 

....60.. 

82... 

...    2.01  
.96.. 

.  ii 

8 

March  

75-  •• 

...87.. 

....59-. 

....79... 

•••    2.  IS  

9 

April  

76... 

...91.. 

....59-. 

....80... 

...  6.86  

14 

May  

78... 

...88.. 

....67.. 

....83... 

...  6.29  

•   »3 

June  , 

78... 

...90.. 

....67.. 

....86... 

•••  7-42  

.   18 

July  

79-.. 

...92.. 

....67.. 

....86... 

...  8.34  

.   18 

August  , 

80... 

...95.- 

....68.. 

....84... 

...  6.77  

•   17 

September  

79--  - 

...93.. 

....69.. 

....85... 

...  7.63  

.  16 

October  

79-.. 

...92.. 

....67.. 

....86... 

...  9.63  

•  15 

November  

78... 

...91.. 

....64.. 

....85... 

...  2.76  

,.  ii 

December  

76... 

...89.. 

....61.. 

....87... 

...  2.09  

..  ii 

Annual  

77-.. 

...95.. 

....59.- 

....84... 

...62.91  

..161 

Santo  Domingo  has  at  intervals  felt  the  violence  of 
the  destructive  hurricanes  which  occasionally  ravage  the 
West  Indies.  They  often  combine  the  features  of  a 
tornado  and  a  cloudburst,  and  while  the  furious  whirl- 
wind wrecks  houses,  uproots  trees  and  strips  forests 
bare  of  leaves,  the  accompanying  severe  rains  swell  the 
streams  to  abnormal  height  and  cause  extensive  inunda- 
tions. The  hurricane  season  is  reckoned  as  beginning 
in  July  and  ending  in  October  and  when  during  this 
period  a  sudden  fall  of  the  barometer  announces  the 

1  See  also  pages  148,  149. 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  129 

proximity  of  unusual  atmospheric  disturbances  all 
shipping  keeps  to  the  harbors  and  the  dwellers  on  shore 
take  measures  to  guard  against  the  devastating  rage  of 
the  wind. 

The  first  West  Indian  hurricane  of  which  we  have 
any  record  was  that  of  1502  which  destroyed  the  first 
city  of  Santo  Domingo  and  sank  a  Spanish  fleet.  More 
recent  storms  felt  in  Santo  Domingo  were  those  of 
1834,  l865>  l8?6  and  1883.  That  of  September  6, 
1883,  desolated  the  southwestern  provinces  of  the 
Republic,  and  the  rise  of  the  Ozama  River  swept  away 
the  bridge  connecting  the  capital  with  the  opposite 
shore.  The  hurricane  of  1899  which  laid  waste  the 
nearby  island  of  Porto  Rico  was  scarcely  felt  in  Santo 
Domingo.  The  latest  unusually  heavy  storm  was  that 
which  swept  over  the  Republic  during  the  first  week  of 
November,  1909,  and  caused  much  damage,  especially 
in  the  Cibao.  A  sudden  storm  in  the  afternoon  of 
August  29,  1916,  accompanied  by  a  kind  of  tidal  wave, 
surprised  the  American  14,500  ton  armored  cruiser 
"Memphis"  at  anchor  in  the  roadstead  of  Santo 
Domingo  City  and  wrecked  it  against  the  rocky  shore. 

With  regard  to  health  conditions,  the  Dominican 
Republic  has  been  maligned  because  of  the  fevers  that 
decimated  the  English  and  French  armies  in  the  Haitian 
wars  of  a  century  ago.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  the  French  part  of  the  island  being  shut  out 
from  the  eastern  breezes  by  high  mountain  ranges  is 
hotter  than  the  Spanish  part,  and  that  the  European 
troops,  improperly  clad  and  fed,  underwent  great 
hardships  and  were  ignorant  of  sanitary  precautions. 
Among  travelers  it  is  the  concensus  of  opinion  that 
climatic  conditions  in  the  Dominican  Republic  are  as 
favorable  as  in  any  other  tropical  country.  Far  from 
presenting  dangers  to  health  there  are  few  districts  in 


130  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  Republic  which  with  proper  hotel  accommodations 
would  not  offer  delightful  refuge  to  invalids  seeking  to 
escape  the  rigors  of  the  northern  winter.  The  salubrity 
of  the  climate  is  reflected  in  the  sturdy  character  of  the 
peasantry,  and  exemplified  by  numerous  cases  of  un- 
usual longevity.  In  the  towns  the  death-rate  is  some- 
what higher  than  in  the  country  regions;  but  the  very 
fact  that  in  spite  of  uncleaned  streets,  reeking  garbage 
heaps,  and  defiance  of  sanitary  precepts  by  the  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitants,  there  has  been  so  compara- 
tively little  sickness,  bears  strong  witness  to  the  health- 
fulness  of  the  country.  By  a  law  of  1912  boards  of 
health  were  established,  and  under  American  impulse 
more  attention  is  now  being  given  to  sanitation. 

As  no  census  of  the  Republic  has  ever  been  taken  and 
data  relative  to  births  and  deaths  have  not  been  col- 
lected regularly,  it  is  not  possible  to  compile  statistics  as 
to  the  death  rate  in  the  various  provinces.  The  data 
so  far  available  seem  to  indicate  that  the  healthiest 
province  is  Puerto  Plata,  followed  by  Santiago,  Azua 
and  Monte  Cristi,  after  which  come  Santo  Domingo, 
La  Vega,  Espaillat,  Pacificador,  Samana  and  Bara- 
hona.  The  mortality  rate  is  highest  in  the  province  of 
Macoris  where  the  annual  number  of  deaths  is  reported 
to  average  about  thirty  per  thousand. 

The  most  frequent  endemic  diseases  are  malaria 
which  is  to  be  feared  near  marshes  and  stagnant  waters, 
pulmonary  consumption,  which,  however,  is  not  more 
common  than  in  the  United  States,  and  diseases  of  the 
digestive  organs.  Yellow  fever  is  unknown  and  the 
sporadic  cases  which  have  occurred  were  due  to  the 
importation  of  the  disease  from  other  countries.  The 
only  epidemic  in  recent  years  occurred  in  Puerto  Plata 
in  1901  when  ten  deaths  were  recorded. 

The  hookworm  disease  is  very  prevalent,  but  its 


TOPOGRAPHY  AND  CLIMATE  131 

ravages  are  not  so  apparent  as  in  certain  other  tropical 
countries.  Venereal  diseases  are  exceedingly  common. 
Evidences  of  the  presence  of  leprosy  and  elephantiasis 
are  occasionally  seen.  The  measures  taken  for  the 
segregation  of  lepers  are  far  from  thorough;  the  lepers' 
asylum  of  Santo  Domingo  City  is  situated  inside  the 
city  walls  and  is  surrounded  by  habitations  of  the  poor. 
Cases  of  typhoid  fever  are  sometimes  registered  during 
the  hot  spell,  from  July  to  October,  but  the  victims  are 
usually  foreigners  who  have  been  careless  of  climatic 
requirements.  The  foreigner  who  will  observe  temper- 
ance and  prudence  in  all  things,  who  will  be  careful  of 
what  he  eats  and  drinks,  who  will  avoid  exposure  to 
rain  showers,  or  to  drafts  when  in  perspiration,  will 
easily  become  acclimated.  Realizing  that  many 
tropical  disorders  originate  in  a  foul  stomach,  the  na- 
tives upon  the  slightest  provocation  have  recourse  to  a 
purgative,  and  the  custom  is  one  which  the  stranger 
should  not  hesitate  to  adopt. 


CHAPTER  IX 

GEOLOGY   AND   MINERALS 

• 

Rock  formation. — Mineral  deposits. — Gold. — Copper. — Iron. — Coal. — Sil- 
ver.— Salt. — Building  stone. — Petroleum. — Mineral  springs. — Earth- 
quakes. 

The  geological  formation  and  the  mineral  wealth  of 
the  Dominican  Republic  have  never  been  thoroughly 
studied,  in  part  because  of  the  physical  difficulties  and 
in  part  as  a  result  of  the  civil  dissensions.  The  govern- 
ment has  never  had  money  to  spare  for  such  objects, 
and  private  investigators  have  suffered  much  hardship 
and  lost  many  days  in  opening  paths  through  tangled 
underbrush,  and  in  crossing  rugged  mountain  ranges  in 
uninhabited  regions.  The  physical  obstacles  and  the 
necessarily  superficial  examination  consequent  thereon 
may  explain  the  contradictions  of  detail  in  different 
reports.  About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
several  studies  were  published,  and  three  scientists 
who  accompanied  the  American  Commission  of  Inquiry 
in  the  year  1871  made  a  report  on  geological  conditions. 

From  such  studies  as  have  been  published  it  appears 
that  the  rock  formations  of  Santo  Domingo  correspond 
to  the  secondary,  the  lower  and  middle  tertiary  and  the 
quaternary  epoch.  The  most  ancient  part  of  the 
island  is  the  central  mountain  range,  also  a  series  of 
protuberances  in  the  Samana  peninsula j1 'the  nucleus  of 
the  Baboruco  mountains  and  a  single  point  in  the  north- 
ern coast  range  near  Puerto  Plata.  The  tertiary  lands 
are  those  forming  the  entire  northern  part  of  the  island 
from  the  central  range  to  the  sea,  portions  of  the 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS  133 

Samana  peninsula  between  the  older  rocks,  a  large 
area  to  the  southwest  of  the  Zamba  hills,  smaller  tracts 
between  the  Jaina  and  Nizao  rivers,  and  the  region 
between  the  salt  lakes  on  the  Haitian  frontier  and  be- 
tween Barahona  and  Neiba.  The  modern  lands  are  the 
coast  plains  and  the  small  terraces  on  the  south  of  the 
central  range  and  on  the  south  of  the  Baboruco  moun- 
tains, the  Maguana,  Azua  and  Neiba  valleys,  small 
areas  on  the  north  coast  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains, 
and  the  marshes  and  Yuna  River  delta  at  the  head  of 
Samana  Bay. 

In  the  central  mountain  range  is  found  a  nucleus  of 
eruptive  rocks  which  have  raised  and  twisted  sedimen- 
tary strata,  covering  them  and  forcing  them  aside. 
This  nucleus  is  not  a  regular  feature  of  the  whole 
length  of  the  chain,  but  is  an  irregular  mass  beginning 
about  at  the  middle,  in  the  region  of  the  Jaina  River, 
and  extending  in  a  series  of  parallel  lines  obliquely 
across  the  backbone  of  the  range  to  the  border  of  the 
Republic  and  on  into  Haiti.  Among  these  rocks  and 
bent  and  broken  by  them  are  the  slates,  conglomerates 
and  calcareous  rocks  which  are  found  in  the  mountains 
and  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  island.  The  character 
of  the  central  range  and  the  inclination  of  the  strata 
of  cretaceous  rocks  make  it  probable  that  the  island 
emerged  from  the  sea  in  the  eocene  period,  its  area 
being  then  confined  to  the  extent  of  the  central  moun- 
tain chain,  with  a  few  small  islands  to  the  south,  one  or 
more  islets  to  the  northeast,  comprising  the  older  peaks 
of  the  Samana  range,  and  a  small  archipelago  to  the 
southeast,  whe.  e  the  hills  of  Seibo  now  are.  During  the 
miocene  period  these  islands  became  surrounded  with 
coral  reefs,  the  vestiges  of  which  remain  in  strips  of 
calcareous  rock  found  in  the  same  position  in  which 
they  were  deposited.  Towards  the  end  of  the  tertiary 


134  SANTO  DOMINGO 

period,  after  a  time  of  quiet,  there  was  a  new  rise  of  the 
land.  While  the  hills  to  the  south  of  Samana  Bay  and 
the  bed  of  the  Cibao  Valley  from  Samana  Bay  to 
Monte  Cristi  rose  slowly,  there  was  an  upheaval 
further  to  the  north,  and  the  Monte  Cristi  Range  was 
formed.  Before  this  period  it  had  been  a  bar  at  sea- 
level,  covered  with  a  clayey  sediment  of  chalk.  At  a 
later  geological  period  the  great  plains  to  the  north  and 
east  of  Santo  Domingo  City  were  formed. 

Traces  of  valuable  minerals  are  so  general  in  the 
Republic  that  it  is  said  there  is  hardly  a  commune 
where  a  more  or  less  abundant  mineral  deposit  is  not 
found.  The  exceptions  are  the  lands  of  recent  coralline 
formation,  such  as  the  municipality  of  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris  and  the  southern  portion  of  the  commune  of 
Higuey. 

The  magnet  which  attracted  the  Spaniards  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  was  the  island's  mineral  wealth, 
especially  the  gold  deposits.  It  is  a  historical  fact  that 
large  quantities  of  gold  in  dust  and  nuggets  were  col- 
lected during  the  first  years  of  Spanish  colonization. 
According  to  the  Spanish  writers,  from  1502  to  1530 
placer  gold  was  produced  to  the  value  of  from  $200,000 
to  $1,000,000  per  annum.  The  fleet  which  set  out  in 
1502  and  was  wrecked  by  a  hurricane  before  leaving  the 
coast  waters  of  Santo  Domingo  was  laden  with  gold 
mined  in  the  island.  A  tribute  of  a  small  amount  of 
gold  each  year  was  imposed  on  half  the  Indians  of  the 
country.  Much  of  the  gold  came  from  the  mountains 
behind  Santiago  and  La  Vega,  from  the  gold-bearing 
sands  of  the  Jaina  River,  around  Buenaventura,  and 
from  the  vicinity  of  Cotui,  then  called  "Las  Minas." 
Ancient  pits  are  still  to  be  found  in  all  these  places. 
At  La  Vega  a  mint  was  established  for  coining  gold  and 
silver.  A  nugget  of  extraordinary  size  was  found  by 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS  135 

an  Indian  woman  in  a  brook  near  the  Jaina  River;  her 
Spanish  masters  in  their  exultation  had  a  roast  suckling 
pig  served  on  it,  boasting  that  never  had  the  king  of 
Spain  dined  from  so  valuable  a  table.  The  Indian  re- 
ceived no  part  of  the  gold:  "she  was  lucky  if  they  gave 
her  a  piece  of  the  pig,"  remarks  Father  Las  Casas. 
This  nugget  was  purchased  by  Bobadilla  to  send  to 
Spain,  and  went  down  with  the  1502  treasure  fleet. 

The  gold  deposits  found  by  the  Spaniards  were  the 
surface  accumulations  of  centuries.  When  these  were 
exhaused  and  the  supply  of  cheap  labor  fell  off  owing  to 
the  dying  out  of  the  Indians,  the  mineral  production 
waned.  In  1502  labor  difficulties  caused  a  temporary 
cessation  in  mining.  In  1511  many  mines  were  def- 
initely closed  because  of  the  scarcity  of  laborers  and 
because  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  offered  surer 
profits.  Then  came  the  discovery  of  mines  of  fabulous 
wealth  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  and  the  interest  they 
aroused,  as  well  as  the  lack  of  labor  in  Santo  Domingo, 
caused  the  mines  of  the  island  to  be  completely  neg- 
lected. Finally,  in  1543,  mining  work  ceased  and  by  a 
royal  decree  all  mines  were  ordered  closed.  Prospecting 
and  desultory  mining,  especially  placer  mining,  have 
been  kept  up,  however,  until  the  present  day. 

The  prospecting  has  generally  been  confined  to  the 
more  accessible  regions  and  nothing  is  known  of  the 
mountain  valleys  in  the  interior.  The  mineral  deposits 
discovered  have  been  of  sufficient  richness  to  cause  the 
formation  of  mining  companies  for  their  development 
or  further  investigation.  I  do  not,  however,  know  of  a 
single  case  where  prospectors  or  mining  companies 
have  ever  made  expenses.  The  cause  of  failure  has  most 
frequently  been  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  in 
the  island,  on  account  of  which  the  cost  of  carrying  the 
ore  to  a  place  where  it  might  be  reduced  became  pro- 


136  SANTO  DOMINGO 

hibitive.  Sometimes  enterprises  failed  because  the 
deposit  turned  out  to  be  too  small,  sometimes  because 
the  ore  did  not  keep  up  to  the  standard,  and  not  infre- 
quently mining  companies  fell  by  the  wayside  because 
of  bad  management.  Enough  evidence  of  mineral 
wealth  has  been  found  to  justify  the  belief  that  work- 
able 'deposits  do  exist,  and  to  warrant  careful  further 
investigation,  especially  as  the  means  of  communica- 
tion are  extended. 

The  metals  most  frequently  found  are  gold,  copper 
and  iron.  Veins  of  auriferous  quartz  are  found  through- 
out the  central  chain,  the  richest  lodes  being  encount- 
ered in  metamorphic  rocks  near  crystalline  formations. 
The  metal  is  most  abundant  in  placers  formed  in  the 
river  beds.  Such  placers  are  common  in  the  Jaina 
River  and  its  tributaries  in  the  province  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo; in  Bonao  creek  in  Seibo  province;  and  in  the 
Verde  River,  the  streams  of  Sabaneta  and  a  number  of 
other  streams  of  the  Cibao.  On  the  upper  Jaina  and 
on  the  Verde  River  there  are  still  persons  who  make 
their  living  by  washing  gold  from  the  river  sands. 
Hydraulic  mining  was  attempted  in  Santiago  province, 
but  after  the  construction  of  an  expensive  canal  the 
project  was  abandoned.  Under  the  liberal  mining  law 
mining  privileges  have  in  recent  years  been  granted  for 
gold  mines  reported  at  numerous  places  in  the  com- 
munes of  San  Jose  de  las  Matas,  San  Cristobal,  Janico, 
San  Juan  de  la  Maguana,  Sabaneta  and  others.  Prof. 
William  P.  Black,-  one  of  the  scientists  accompanying 
the  United  States  Commission  of  Inquiry  in  1871, 
reported : 

"There  is  a  very  considerable  extent  of  gold-bearing  coun- 
try in  the  interior  and  gold  is  washed  from  the  rivers  at  va- 
rious points.  It  is  found  along  the  Jaina,  upon  the  Verde, 
and  upon  the  Yaque  and  its  tributaries,  and  doubtless  upon 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS  137 

the  large  rivers  of  the  interior.  Some  portions  of  the  gold 
fields  were  worked  anciently  by  the  Spaniards  and  Indians. 
There  are  doubtless  many  gold  deposits,  not  only  along  the 
bed  of  rivers,  but  on  the  hills,  which  have  never  been  worked, 
and  there  probably  is  considerable  gold  remaining  among  the 
old  workings.  The  appearance  of  the  soil  and  rocks  is  such  as 
to  justify  the  labor  and  expense  of  carefully  prospecting  the 
gold  region." 

Copper  is  next  to  gold  in  frequency  of  occurrence. 
Some  of  the  best  deposits  have  been  found  in  the  com- 
mune of  San  Cristobal,  province  of  Santo  Domingo. 
A  company  working  lodes  at  Mount  Mateo  on  the 
Nigua  River,  encountered  ore  yielding  as  high  as  33  per 
cent  of  copper.  On  the  Jaina  River  near  the  ruins  of 
Buenaventura,  I  have  seen  promising  ledges  of  copper 
ore.  Copper  carbonates  predominated,  the  green  ore 
known  as  malachite  and  the  beautiful  blue  ore  azurite 
were  quite  common,  and  white  quartz,  which  on  being 
broken  showed  little  specks  of  native  copper,  was  also 
to  be  found.  The  asperity  of  the  region,  the  absence  of 
roads  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  extent  of  these 
deposits  caused  the  attempts  at  working  them  to  be 
but  feeble  until  recently,  when  extensive  works  of  de- 
velopment were  undertaken  in  the  vicinity.  Copper 
veins  have  also  been  reported  in  the  mountains  of  the 
commune  of  Bani,  province  of  Santo  Domingo;  in  the 
communes  of  Cotui  and  Bonao,  province  of  La  Vega; 
in  the  canton  of  Moncion,  province  of  Monte  Cristi; 
in  the  commune  of  San  Juan  de  la  Maguana,  province 
of  Azua,  and  at  a  number  of  other  places. 

Iron  is  reported  in  large  quantities  in  various  parts 
of  the  country.  The  largest  deposit  so  far  known  is  on 
the  banks  of  the  Maimon  River  in  the  municipality  of 
Cotui,  being  a  bed  of  black  magnetic  oxide  of  iron,  nine 
miles  long.  It  is  said  to  be  excellent  in  quality  and 


138  SANTO  DOMINGO 

inexhaustible  in  quantity.  The  difficulties  of  trans- 
portation in  this  case  could  be  obviated  by  the  canaliza- 
tion of  the  river  to  its  confluence  with  the  Yuna  River, 
so  as  to  make  it  navigable  for  small  boats.  Iron  ore  has 
been  discovered  on  the  slope  of  Mt.  Isabel  de  Torres 
behind  the  city  of  Puerto  Plata,  limonite  deposits  at 
various  places  in  Santo  Domingo  province,  and  a  rich 
black  iron  oxide  on  the  upper  Ozama  River.  A  layer  of 
iron  pyrites  extending  from  Los  Llanos  all  the  way  to 
Sabana  la  Mar  was  believed  by  its  discoverers  to  be  a 
gold  mine.  The  central  ridge  of  Santo  Domingo  is 
part  of  the  same  mountain  chain  which  extends  through 
Santiago  province  in  Cuba  where  enormous  quantities 
of  iron  are  produced,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  some 
of  the  Dominican  mines  will  be  found  to  pay. 

Coal  mines  found  in  the  Samana  peninsula  produced  a 
kind  of  lignite  which  proved  of  little  commercial  value 
and  gave  rise  to  the  belief  that  the  Republic's  coal 
deposits  had  not  emerged  from  the  formative  period. 
Later  investigations  show  that  while  there  is  con- 
siderable undeveloped  lignite,  coal  suitable  for  fuel  is 
not  wanting.  Small  coal  deposits  have  been  discovered 
in  the  Cibao  Valley,  between  the  central  and  the  north- 
ern mountain  chain,  in  the  province  of  Pacificador  and 
that  of  Santiago.  Anthracite  coal  found  at  Tamboril, 
near  the  city  of  Santiago,  was  used  to  run  a  small 
motor  exhibited  at  an  industrial  fair  in  Santiago  in 
1903.  In  the  commune  of  Altamira,  province  of  Puerto 
Plata,  lignite  and  anthracite  beds  have  been  discovered, 
and  traces  of  anthracite  have  also  been  found  in  San 
Cristobal  commune,  and  in  the  petroleum  region  of 
Azua.  In  the  central  mountain  chain  a  valuable  coal 
deposit  has  been  found  on  the  Haitian  side  and  similar 
beds  may  be  expected  in  Santo  Domingo. 

Silver  has  been  discovered  at  Tanci,  near  Yasica,  in 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS  139 

the  commune  of  Puerto  Plata.  The  old  chronicles  refer 
to  silver  mines  at  Jarabacoa  and  Cotui  in  La  Vega 
province,  also  to  others  near  Santiago,  near  Higuey  and 
on  the  Jaina  River.  Platinum  occurs  at  Jarabacoa, 
traces  of  quicksilver  have  been  found  near  Santiago, 
Banica  and  San  Cristobal,  and  tin  in  Seibo  and  Higuey. 

Rock  salt  is  found  near  Neiba  in  inexhaustible 
quantities,  there  being  several  hills  of  native  salt  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  soil.  The  fact  that  the  waters  of 
Lake  Enriquillo  are  saltier  than  the  sea  is  attributed  by 
some  to  a  deposit  of  this  kind.  The  salt  is  so  pure  that 
it  does  not  attract  moisture  and  deliquesce.  The  isola- 
tion of  the  district  has  been  an  obstacle  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  salt  mines,  but  there  is  a  project  for  the 
building  of  a  railroad  to  the  port  of  Barahona.  Part 
of  the  salt  used  in  the  island  comes  from  salt  ponds 
near  Azua,  where  salt  is  obtained  from  sea  water  by 
solar  evaporation. 

On  a  hill  at  the  confluence  of  the  Jimenoa  and  the 
Yaque  del  Norte  an  alum  deposit  reaches  the  surface 
and  the  natives  gather  alum  which  they  sell  in  Santiago 
City.  A  deposit  of  amber  having  been  reported  in  the 
Cibao  a  company  was  formed  several  years  ago  for  its 
development,  but  as  the  company  did  nothing,  so  far  as 
known,  except  issue  stock,  and  no  part  of  the  untold 
millions  which  were  affirmed  to  be  within  easy  reach 
has  materialized,  the  deposit  is  not  regarded  as  posses- 
sing commercial  value. 

For  building  purposes  there  is  a  large  variety  of 
limestone  and  lime.  The  coral  rock  is  easy  to  quarry 
and  soft  enough  to  shape  with  the  axe,  but  exposure 
to  the  air  makes  it  hard  as  granite,  as  is  proven  by  the 
old  buildings  and  city  walls  of  Santo  Domingo  City, 
which  have  stood  for  centuries.  In  the  central  range, 
on  the  Samana  peninsula  and  near  Puerto  Plata,  granite, 


140  SANTO  DOMINGO 

syenite  and  other  building  stones  are  found,  but  owing 
to  the  absence  of  transportation  facilities  they  are  not 
utilized.  In  the  Bani  region  a  sandstone  occurs  from 
which  grindstones  are  made.  Clay  of  a  fine  grade, 
proper  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks  and  tiles,  is 
abundant.  Clays  of  various  colors,  found  in  the 
interior  of  the  island,  are  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  paints.  Gypsum  is  found,  especially  in  Azua  prov- 
ince, and  the  presence  of  kaolin  and  feldspar  in  the 
province  of  Santo  Domingo,  south  of  the  central  range, 
offers  a  possibility  of  porcelain  manufacture. 

Petroleum  has  been  found  in  large  quantities  in  the 
vicinity  of  Azua.  The  presence  of  the  oil  is  suspected  in 
other  parts  of  the  island  and  it  is  claimed  that  a  petro- 
leum belt  which  is  believed  to  extend  from  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Venezuela  embraces  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  Dominican  Republic.  Near  Puerto  Plata,  during 
rains,  one  of  the  streams  flowing  down  from  the  moun- 
tains in  the  Mameyes  section,  is  covered  with  greasy 
spots  thought  to  be  petroleum  that  has  oozed  from  the 
subsoil.  Traces  of  petroleum  have  also  been  discovered 
near  Neiba,  and  in  the  provinces  of  Pacificador  and 
Seibo. 

Borings  have  been  made  only  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Azua.  A  pool  known  as  "agua  hedionda,"  "stinking 
water,"  had  long  suggested  petroleum,  and  an  American 
company  known  as  the  West  Indies  Petroleum  Mining 
and  Export  Company  undertook  the  development  of 
the  field.  Oil  was  struck  on  November  14,  1904,  the 
well  spouting  oil  to  a  height  of  seventy  feet  and  pro- 
ducing about  500  barrels  per  day.  The  grade  of  the 
oil  was  22  Baume  gravity  with  an  asphaltum  base.  It 
was  better  than  the  average  of  Texas  oil  and  was  con- 
sidered a  good  fuel  and  lubricating  product.  The  main 
difficulty  in  this  field  was  the  presence  of  salt  water 


Above:  Street  in  Bani 
Below:  Street  in  Puerto  Plata 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS        141 

above  the  oil  (as  is  often  the  case  in  oil  regions),  which 
here  came  in  rapidly  at  a  depth  of  about  900  to  looo 
feet.  It  was  necessary  to  put  a  gate  valve  on  the  first 
well,  keeping  it  enclosed  for  a  period  of  six  months,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  damaging  of  the  surrounding  prop- 
erty from  the  flow  of  oil,  as  there  were  no  storage  tanks. 
During  this  time  the  continued  agitation  of  the  casing 
by  the  gas  pressure  and  the  looseness  of  the  upper  soils 
and  shales  let  in  the  salt  water  and  ruined  the  well,  and, 
it  is  to  be  feared,  to  some  extent  affected  the  surround- 
ing territory.  The  company  sunk  four  wells  more,  all 
but  one  of  which  produced  some  oil,  but  as  the  salt 
water  entered  in  such  large  quantities  they  were  unable 
to  penetrate  below  the  1200  feet  level  and  were  forced 
to  abandon  the  wells  at  just  about  the  depth  where  they 
expected  to  reach  the  real  oil  sand.  The  fifth  well 
showed  greater  evidence  of  a  genuine  oil  field  than  any 
drilled  previously  but  for  the  same  reason  it  could  not 
be  carried  to  the  desired  depth.  At  this  point  dis- 
sensions arose  in  the  management  of  the  company  with 
regard  to  the  method  of  drilling,  the  suggestion  being 
made  that  a  combination  drilling  machinery  comprising 
what  is  known  as  the  rotary  process  be  adopted  in 
combination  with  the  old  cable  rig  style.  No  agree- 
ment was  reached,  and  operations  were  discontinued. 
Since  the  beginning  of  1917  other  interests  have  made 
investigations  and  it  is  rumored  that  development  work 
will  shortly  begin.  There  are  indications  that  if  drilled 
with  the  proper  appliances  the  field  will  yield  excellent 
results.  How  far  the  Azua  oil  field  extends  is  a  matter 
of  conjecture,  but  it  has  been  estimated  to  cover  an 
area  of  over  190  square  miles. 

Thermal  springs  are  also  found  near  Azua.  At 
Resoli,  about  21  miles  southwest  of  Azua  City,  there  are 
hot  sulphur  springs  of  very  copious  flow.  Nearby  there 


142  SANTO  DOMINGO 

is  one  of  tepid  water,  slightly  acid  and  stinging,  though 
pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  with  no  trace  of  sulphur. 
Within  a  radius  of  a  hundred  yards  there  are  about  a 
dozen  springs  of  different  temperatures  and  medicinal 
properties,  and  the  place  is  admirably  adapted  for  the 
location  of  a  health  resort.  Mineral  springs,  especially 
sulphur  springs,  abound  along  the  western  frontier  of 
the  Republic.  On  the  Viajama  River,  where  a  sulphur 
mine  is  reported,  there  are  cold  sulphur  springs  which 
are  said  to  have  gushed  forth  for  the  first  time  during 
the  earthquake  of  1751.  To  the  east  of  Santiago  are 
the  Anibaje  springs  which  contain  sulphur  and  iron. 
Hot  and  cold  sulphur  springs  are  found  in  the  out- 
skirts of  San  Jose  de  las  Matas,  southwest  of  Santiago, 
and  hot  springs  at  Banica,  and  to  the  east  and  west  of 
Lake  Enriquillo. 

While  there  are  no  volcanoes  on  the  island,  severe 
seismic  disturbances  have  at  times  occasioned  great 
havoc  and  loss  of  life.  One  of  the  first  and  most  memo- 
rable was  that  of  1564  which  overthrew  the  cities  of  La 
Vega  and  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros.  La  Vega  was  at 
that  time  a  good  sized  town  with  substantial  brick 
houses,  and  the  masses  of  masonry  strewn  about  in  the 
thicket  which  now  covers  the  site  of  the  old  city  give 
evidence  of  the  force  of  the  earthquake.  In  1654  and 
1673  dwellings  and  churches  in  Santo  Domingo  City 
were  damaged  by  lesser  shocks,  and  in  1751  an  earth- 
quake wrecked  edifices  in  the  capital,  and  completely 
destroyed  the  old  city  of  Azua  and  the  town  of  Seibo. 
The  most  recent  and  perhaps  the  most  disastrous 
earthquake  was  that  of  1842  when  a  violent  commotion 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  island  demolished  the  cities 
of  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros  on  the  Dominican  side  and 
Cape  Haitien  on  the  Haitian  side,  bringing  death  to 
hundreds  of  their  inhabitants.  Since  that  date  there 


GEOLOGY  AND  MINERALS  143 

have  been  no  severe  shocks,  though,  as  is  the  case  in 
other  West  India  Islands,  slight  tremblings  of  the  earth 
are  not  infrequent.  I  have  experienced  several  of  such 
tremblings  in  Santo  Domingo  and  have  never  been 
able  to  ward  off  a  kind  of  creepy  feeling  when  the 
rattling  of  windows  and  doors  indicated  their  approach 
and  passage.  Near  the  ruins  of  ancient  La  Vega  the 
natives  point  out  a  spot  in  the  woods  which  they  call 
"tembladera"  and  where  they  say  the  earth  quakes  at 
the  approach  of  man.  Investigation  discloses  that 
while  the  earth  really  does  tremble  when  anyone  walks 
at  this  place  the  cause  is  not  so  deep-seated  as  many 
imagine,  the  phenomenon  being  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  rich  loamy  soil  is  sustained  by  the  interlaced 
roots  of  trees,  the  foundation  having  been  washed  away 
by  subterranean  waters,  and  the  grassy  floor  is  swayed 
by  every  motion  upon  it. 


CHAPTER  X 

FLORA   AND    FAUNA 

Agricultural  conditions. — Land  titles  and  measures. — Wet  and  arid  regions. 
— Exports. — Sugar. — Cacao. — Tobacco. — Coffee. — Tropical  fruits. — 
Forest  products. — Insects. — Reptiles. — Fishery. — Birds. — Cattle  rais- 
ing. 

Of  all  the  islands  visited  by  Columbus  none  impressed 
him  so  favorably  as  Santo  Domingo.  His  enthusiasm 
is  reflected  in  the  glowing  description  given  in  his  letter 
to  his  friend  and  patron,  Luis  de  Santangel,  dated 
February  15,  1493,  of  which  the  following  forms  part: 

"In  it  (la  Espanola)  there  are  many  havens  on  the  sea, 
coast,  incomparable  with  any  others  I  know  in  Christendom- 
and  plenty  of  rivers,  so  good  and  great  that  it  is  a  marvel. 
The  lands  there  are  high,  and  in  it  there  are  very  many  ranges 
of  hills  and  most  lofty  mountains,  incomparably  beyond  the 
Island  of  Cetrefrey  (Teneriffe) ;  all  most  beautiful  in  a  thou- 
sand shapes  and  all  accessible,  and  full  of  trees  of  a  thousand 
kinds,  so  lofty  that  they  seem  to  reach  the  sky.  And  I  am 
assured  that  they  never  lose  their  foliage,  as  may  be  imagined, 
since  I  saw  them  as  green  and  as  beautiful  as  they  are  in 
Spain  in  May,  and  some  of  them  were  in  flower,  some  in 
fruit,  some  in  another  stage,  according  to  their  kind.  And 
the  nightingale  was  singing,  and  other  birds  of  a  thousand 
sorts,  in  the  month  of  November,  round  about  the  way  I  was 
going.  There  are  palm  trees  of  six  or  eight  species,  wondrous 
to  see  for  their  beautiful  variety;  but  so  are  the  other  trees 
and  fruits  and  plants  therein.  There  are  wonderful  pine 
groves  and  very  large  plains  of  verdure,  and  there  is  honey 
and  many  kinds  of  birds  and  great  diversity  of  fruits.  There 
are  many  mines  of  metals  in  the  earth,  and  the  population  is 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  145 

of  inestimable  number.  Espanola  is  a  marvel;  the  mountains 
and  hills,  and  plains,  and  fields,  and  the  soil  so  beautiful  and 
rich  for  planting  and  sowing,  for  breeding  cattle  of  all  sorts, 
for  building  towns  and  villages.  There  could  be  no  believing, 
without  seeing,  such  harbors  as  are  here,  as  well  as  the  many 
and  great  rivers  and  excellent  waters,  most  of  which  contain 
gold.  In  the  trees  and  fruits  and  plants  there  is  great  di- 
versity from  those  of  Juana  (Cuba).  In  this  island  there  are 
many  species  and  great  mines  of  gold  and  other  metals." 

Columbus'  panegyric  on  the  beauty,  fertility  and  re- 
sources of  the  Island  has  been  echoed  by  every  writer 
and  traveler  who  has  since  visited  the  country.  The 
United  States  Commission  of  Inquiry  to  Santo  Domingo 
reported  in  1871:  "The  resources  of  the  country  are 
vast  and  various,  and  its  products  may  be  increased 
with  scarcely  any  other  limit  than  the  labor  expended 
upon  them.  .  .  .  Taken  as  a  whole,  this  Republic  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
The  evidence  of  men  well  acquainted  with  the  other 
West  India  Islands  declares  this  to  be  naturally  the 
richest  of  them  all."  Yet  the  country's  wonderful  re- 
sources are  to-day  in  almost  virgin  condition;  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  Republic's  extent  they  remain  ab- 
solutely untouched;  in  the  remainder  the  beginning  of 
development  has  scarcely  been  made. 

In  the  first  days  of  the  colony  it  appeared  that  agri- 
cultural prosperity  would  quickly  be  attained.  Great 
plantations  were  set  out  and  the  remains  of  palaces 
and  convents  in  Santo  Domingo  City  testify  to  the 
wealth  they  produced.  But  the  prosperity  was  founded 
on  the  basis  of  slavery.  The  laughing  aborigines  soon 
succumbed  under  forced  labor,  the  importation  of  ne- 
groes was  found  expensive,  and  hopes  of  better  fortune 
attracted  the  colonists  to  the  American  continent. 
While  the  country  languished  under  restrictive  trade 


146  SANTO  DOMINGO 

regulations,  stock  raising  became  almost  the  sole  pur- 
suit of  the  Spanish  section  of  the  island.  In  the  mean- 
time the  French  settled  the  western  coast,  and  the  name 
of  their  colony,  also  founded  on  slavery,  became  a  syno- 
nym for  wealth  and  luxury.  The  development  of  the 
Spanish  section  had  scarcely  begun  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century  when  it  was  blocked  by  wars,  the 
Haitian  occupation,  and  later  by  the  civil  disturbances. 
The  native  had  no  incentive  to  accumulate  property, 
which  would  only  attract  revolutionists,  and  the  for- 
eigner was  chary  of  investing  his  money  in  so  turbulent 
a  community.  What  progress  has  been  made  is  due 
to  the  short  periods  of  peace,  principally  the  period  of 
Heureaux's  ascendancy,  from  1880  to  1899,  and  the 
periods  from  1905  to  date.  The  rapid  and  gratifying 
strides  made  since  the  Dominican-American  fiscal  treaty 
increased  the  probabilities  of  peace  are  an  indication 
of  what  the  country  may  and  will  in  time  attain.  As 
an  English-speaking  resident  put  it,  paraphrasing  a 
familiar  saying  in  the  United  States,  "If  the  people 
will  only  raise  more  cacao  and  less  Hades,  the  country 
will  soon  be  a  paradise."  At  the  present  time  the  most 
serious  obstacle  to  rural  development  is  the  lack  of 
adequate  means  of  communication — roads  and  rail- 
roads. It  is  evident  that  the  interior  cannot  be  de- 
veloped so  long  as  the  cost  of  transportation  is  pro- 
hibitive or  the  roads  are  impassable  during  a  great 
part  of  the  year. 

The  condition  of  land  titles  leaves  much  to  be  de- 
sired. All  titles  are  supposed  to  be  derived  from  orig- 
inal grants  by  the  crown  or  the  government  of  the 
Republic.  As  there  is  no  record  extant  of  such  grants 
and  as  much  land  has  been  acquired  by  adverse  pos- 
session, the  amount  of  land  remaining  to  the  state  can- 
not even  be  the  subject  of  an  intelligent  guess.  The 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  147 

greater  part  of  such  land  passed  to  the  Republic  as 
successor  to  the  Spanish  crown,  another  portion  was 
added  in  1844  by  the  confiscation  of  property  belonging 
to  Haitians,  but  no  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to  sur- 
vey or  even  to  list  state  lands.  According  to  some  es- 
timates the  state  owns  as  much  as  one  or  even  two-fifths 
the  area  of  the  Republic,  but  it  is  probable  that  these 
estimates  are  exaggerated  and  almost  the  only  tracts 
remaining  to  the  government  are  situated  in  the  inac- 
cessible mountain  region  of  the  interior  and  along  the 
Haitian  border.  The  income  of  the  Republic  is  still 
insufficient  to  leave  money  for  the  investigation  of 
public  lands,  and  every  year's  delay  will  permit  more 
of  such  lands  to  be  absorbed  by  private  persons. 

A  large  portion  of  the  rural  land  is  held  in  common. 
Tracts  originally  belonging  to  one  owner  descended  un- 
divided among  his  heirs  for  generations,  individual  heirs 
sometimes  sold  their  shares,  and  the  result  is  that 
often  the  tract  belongs  in  common  to  many  persons, 
some  of  them  holding  very  small  shares.  The  shares 
of  the  co-owners  are  known  as  "pesos  de  posesion," 
"dollars  of  possession,"  corresponding  to  the  value 
given  them  at  some  remote  period.  The  owner  of  any 
undivided  portion  of  such  "comunero"  property, 
though  he  hold  only  one  or  two  shares  or  "pesos  de 
posesion,"  may  enter  upon  and  cultivate  any  part  of 
the  land  he  finds  unoccupied  by  other  co-owners,  and 
use  anything  growing  or  existing  thereon,  except  cer- 
tain timber  or  unless  it  be  the  result  of  the  labor  of 
other  co-owners.  That  this  peculiar  mode  of  enjoying 
the  comunero  property  has  not  resulted  in  friction  and 
conflicts  may  be  ascribed  to  the  smallness  of  the  culti- 
vated fields,  the  small  population  and  the  enormous 
expanse  of  vacant  land.  For  the  prospective  purchaser 
the  doubts  surrounding  the  title  to  comunero  lands  are 


148  SANTO  DOMINGO 

enhanced  by  the  existence  of  fraudulent  "peso"  titles 
and  by  the  destruction  of  public  offices  where  title 
transfers  should  have  been  recorded.  In  recent  years 
much  division  of  comunero  land  among  the  co-owners 
has  been  going  on  and  such  action  is  facilitated  by  a 
law  of  1911,  but  the  importance  of  the  matter  merits 
additional  laws  to  cheapen  and  hasten  the  division. 

All  the  planting  of  small  crops  by  the  poorer  country- 
man is  done  in  what  are  called  "conucos,"  cleared  spaces 
fenced  by  sticks  laid  tightly  against  each  other  in  order 
to  keep  out  the  wild  pigs  which  infest  the  country.  The 
construction  of  the  fences  is  a  laborious  task,  yet  after 
one  or  two  years  they  require  extensive  repairs,  and 
when  the  repairs  are  such  as  to  amount  to  a  practical 
rebuilding,  the  "conuco"  is  commonly  abandoned,  and 
a  new  one  located  elsewhere.  This  method  is  wasteful 
of  fence-material  and  land.  The  planting  is  done  in 
the  most  primitive  way,  commonly  by  making  a  hole 
in  the  ground  with  a  machete  or  by  using  a  forked  stick 
as  a  plow.  There  are  few  hoes,  and  among  the  natives 
no  modern  steel  plows. 

A  "conuco"  is  usually  about  one  acre  in  extent,  or  to 
be  precise  twenty-five  varas  conuqueras  square.  Though 
the  metric  system  is  the  official  system  of  measurement 
and  is  gradually  coming  into  use,  many  of  the  older 
standards  still  prevail.  A  common  measure  of  length 
is  the  Castilian  vara,  about  equivalent  to  an  English 
yard;  the  vara  conuquera,  about  two  and  a  half  yards; 
the  tarea,  used  for  measuring  fences,  twenty-five  varas 
conuqueras  in  length,  and  the  league,  something  over 
three  miles.  The  common  units  of  surface  measurement 
are  the  tarea,  of  about  one-sixth  acre,  and  the  caba- 
lleria  of  1200  tareas  or  about  200  acres. 

Generally  speaking,  a  line  drawn  from  Cape  Isabela 
on  the  north  coast,  through  Santiago,  to  the  mouth  of 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  149 

the  Nizao  River  in  the  south,  divides  the  country  into 
two  regions  of  which  the  eastern  one  has  abundant 
rainfall  and  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation,  while  in  the 
western  one  there  is  little  rain,  and  cactus  plants  and 
thorny  bushes  betoken  the  aridity  of  the  soil.  The 
two  ends  of  the  Cibao  Valley  seem  like  different  coun- 
tries, the  eastern  end  covered  with  palm-trees,  ferns 
and  other  flora  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  the  western  por- 
tion dry  and  dotted  with  giant  cacti  of  fantastic  shape. 
In  the  country  near  Azua  and  Monte  Cristi  I  have 
imagined  myself  on  the  plains  of  New  Mexico,  with 
their  scorching  heat,  their  cactus,  mesquite  bushes  and 
distant  violet  mountains  fading  into  the  azure  sky. 
While  arid,  these  western  regions  of  Santo  Domingo 
are  as  fertile  as  the  rest  of  the  country  and  when  irri- 
gated give  remarkable  crops.  One  of  the  Dominican 
government's  projects  is  an  extensive  irrigation  scheme 
for  the  Monte  Cristi  district.  The  most  productive 
portion  of  the  Republic  is  undoubtedly  the  Royal  Plain 
in  the  Cibao  Valley,  which  is  of  almost  incredible 
fertility.  It  is  covered  with  a  rich  black  loam  from 
three  to  fifteen  feet  deep,  as  can  be  seen  wherever 
brooks  have  cut  ravines  into  the  earth,  and  is  re- 
ferred to  as  the  Mississippi  Valley  of  the  Dominican 
Republic. 

The  greater  or  less  elevation  of  the  land  has  likewise 
produced  different  agricultural  zones:  the  lower  plains 
of  the  southern  coast  are  favored  for  sugar  planting; 
the  slightly  higher  lands  are  given  over  to  cacao  and 
coffee,  and  the  highest  part  of  the  country,  the  moun- 
tain region,  is  covered  with  timber.  Broad  savannas 
are  a  feature  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  Republic; 
on  the  plains  to  the  east  of  Santo  Domingo  City,  all 
the  way  to  the  ocean,  there  are  great  seas  of  grass,  like 
the  prairies  of  the  United  States,  with  large  islands  of 


150  SANTO  DOMINGO 

trees,  while  to  the  west  they  constitute  lakes  in  a  con- 
tinent of  forest. 

All  tropical  fruits  grow  in  profusion  and  many  vege- 
tables, fruits  and  cereals  indigenous  to  countries  of  the 
temperate  zone  are  successfully  grown.  Practically  all 
the  vegetables  and  fruits,  as  well  as  the  grains  and 
staples  of  the  Middle  States  of  the  American  Union 
may  be  produced,  especially  in  the  higher  portion  of 
the  island.  The  fact  that  raspberries  and  delicious 
grapes  grow  wild  in  the  highland  indicates  the  possi- 
bilities of  fruit  culture.  With  a  view  to  encouraging 
agriculture  the  various  provinces  for  years  had  "boards 
of  development"  paid  from  national  funds,  but  the 
positions  on  these  boards  were  regarded  as  political 
plums,  and  while  the  members  drew  their  salaries,  no 
other  result  of  their  activities  was  apparent.  The  gov- 
ernment has  also  made  spasmodic  attempts  to  establish 
an  agricultural  experiment  station,  but  with  its  limited 
resources  nothing  tangible  has  been  accomplished.  The 
establishment  and  extension  of  large  sugar  estates  was 
stimulated  by  a  law  of  agricultural  franchises,  enacted 
in  1911,  granting  excessively  broad  privileges  and  ex- 
emptions to  sugar,  cacao  and  coffee  plantations  which 
registered  under  that  law. 

The  table  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the  quantity 
and  value  of  the  principal  exports  of  the  Dominican  Re- 
public since  1913  and  is  the  best  illustration  of  the  fact 
that  agriculture  is  the  mainstay  of  the  country. 

Sugar,  the  leading  export,  is  the  principal  product 
of  the  southern  portion  of  the  Republic.  In  contrast 
with  the  cultivation  of  cacao,  coffee  and  tobacco,  sugar 
planting  requires  a  large  outlay  of  capital.  The  fields 
must  be  carefully  prepared,  extensive  ditching  must 
be  done  in  order  to  provide  irrigation  during  the 
dry  season;  the  fields  must  be  cleaned  repeatedly 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA 

EXPORTS  OF  THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 

1913  1914  1915  1916 


Sugar  (raw)  .... 

kilos  » 
value  $ 

78,849  465 
3,650,556 

101,428,847 
*  4,943,452 

i 

$ 

02,800,551 
7,671,383 

122,642,514 
$12,028,297 

Cacao  

kilos 

19,470,827 

20,744,517 

20,223,023 

21,053,305 

value  $ 

4,"9,955 

$  3,896,489 

$ 

4,863,754 

$  5,958,669 

Tobacco  leaf.  .  .  . 

.  kilos 

9,790,398 

3,705,549 

6,235,409 

7,925,151 

value  $ 

i,i2i,77S 

$     394,224 

$ 

972,896 

*  1,433,323 

Coffee  

kilos 

1,048,922 

1,831,938 

2,468,435 

1,731,718 

value  $ 

257,076 

*     345,579 

$ 

458.431 

$    316,827 

Hides  and  skins. 

.kilos 

541,154 

685,042 

638,020 

616,446 

value  $ 

241,072 

$     253,832 

$ 

270,356 

$    334,665 

Q 

I 

£          £\~)   •  S3  •• 

<t 

o 

rf                 f. 

,  value 

p          02,^05 

f> 

195,702 

•P       295>°22 

Bananas  

bunche 

s    592,804 

114,142 

327,169 

348,560 

value  $ 

296,368 

*     57,044 

$ 

166,432 

$        I72|6lS 

Beeswax  and 

honey  

.value  $ 

206,749 

$    207,290 

$ 

144,579 

$        176,144 

Molasses  

kilos 

12,064,038 

17,962,441 

15,484,205 

18,752,440 

value  $ 

6o,737 

$     93,787 

$ 

100,023 

$        120,738 

Forest  products. 

.value  $ 

167,037 

$     66,464 

$ 

64,368 

$          57,250 

Cotton  

,  kilos 

242,221 

167,123 

141,623 

91,258 

value  $ 

85,398 

$     67,830 

$ 

60,600 

*          31,759 

All  other  exports 

.value  $ 

263,224 

$    200,211 

* 

240,457 

$       601,964 

Total  exports value  $  10,469,947   $10,588,787   $15,209,061    $21,527,873 

while  the  cane  is  growing;  and  when  the  cane  even- 
tually matures,  after  fourteen  to  eighteen  months  of 
growth,  it  must  upon  cutting  be  immediately  trans- 
ported to  the  mill,  where  expensive  machinery  grinds 
it  and  fabricates  sugar  from  the  cane  juice.  The 
large  sugar  plantations  of  the  country  are  all  owned 
by  foreigners,  principally  Americans  and  Italians,  but 
dependent  upon  them  are  many  small  plots,  planted 
under  contract  with  the  central  factory  by  small  native 

1 1  kilo  =  2.2  pounds. 


152  SANTO  DOMINGO 

owners  or  contractors.  Before  the  establishment  of  the 
first  of  these  plantations  near  Macoris  in  the  early 
eighties,  the  apparatus  for  making  sugar  was  as  crude 
as  that  employed  by  the  first  colonists,  consisting  of 
small  presses  turned  by  oxen,  and  large  caldrons  to  boil 
the  cane.  The  other  West  India  Islands  are  dotted  with 
the  ruins  of  old  sugar  mills  erected  in  the  beginning  and 
middle  of  the  last  century,  but  those  days  were  not 
favorable  to  investment  in  Santo  Domingo  and  such 
buildings  and  ruins  are  absolutely  wanting  in  this 
island. 

Most  of  the  large  plantations  are  located  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  San  Pedro  de  Macoris,  and  to  them  the  city  owes 
its  rapid  development.  These  represent  a  value  of 
millions  of  dollars,  are  equipped  with  plantation  rail- 
roads and  modern  mills  and  extend  over  thousands  of 
acres  of  the  plains  behind  the  city.  The  great  Consuelo 
estate,  the  Santa  Fe  plantation,  the  Porvenir  and  the 
Puerto  Rico  estates  are  owned  by  American  capital, 
and  two  others,  the  Quisqueya  and  Cristobal  Colon 
plantations  are  owned  by  Americans  and  Cubans. 
The  Angelina  estate  is  an  Italian  investment,  but  its 
owners  hold  it  in  the  name  of  the  General  Industrial 
Company,  a  corporation  organized  by  them  under  the 
laws  of  New  Jersey,  apparently  with  a  view  to  claiming 
American  protection  in  case  of  disturbances.  The 
principal  owners  of  this  estate  as  well  as  of  other  Italian 
sugar  estates  on  the  south  coast  are  heirs  of  J.  B. 
Vicini,  who  was  a  wealthy  Italian  merchant  of  Santo 
Domingo  City. 

One  of  the  largest  sugar  estates  of  the  Republic  is  the 
Central  Romana,  which  controls  some  40,000  acres 
near  the  port  of  La  Romana,  and  is  owned  by  the  South 
Porto  Rico  Sugar  Company.  Since  the  first  crop  in 
1911  the  cane  has  been  shipped  to  the  mill  at  Guanica, 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  153 

Porto  Rico,  for  grinding,  but  a  huge  fifteen-roller  mill, 
which  will  be  the  largest  on  the  island,  is  now  in  course 
of  erection  at  La  Romana. 

Two  plantations  near  Santo  Domingo  City,  San 
Isidro  and  La  Fe,  belong  to  Americans.  The  Italia 
sugar  estate  at  Yaguate,  near  the  Nizao  River,  the 
Ocoa  estate  and  the  Central  Azuano,  on  the  outskirts 
of  Azua  all  belong  to  the  Vicini  heirs.  At  Azua  there  is 
another  plantation,  the  Ansonia  estate,  which  is  the 
property  of  Americans.  The  plantations  at  Azua  and 
Ocoa  are  watered  by  irrigation,  those  of  Azua  deriving 
their  water  from  artesian  wells.  American  capital  is 
also  establishing  sugar  plantations  near  Barahona.  On 
the  north  coast  there  are  only  two  small  sugar  planta- 
tions near  Puerto  Plata,  in  which  German  and  Spanish 
capital  is  interested,  but  another  is  being  established  at 
Sosua. 

So  rich  are  the  Dominican  lands  that  cane  will  grow 
from  the  same  root  for  ten  and  even  twenty  years, 
while  in  Porto  Rico  and  the  lesser  Antilles  long  cultiva- 
tion has  exhausted  the  soil  and  replanting  is  necessary 
every  three  years.  Near  Macoris  the  planters  have  had 
so  much  land  available  that  instead  of  replanting  they 
have  often  abandoned  their  old  fields  and  taken  up 
virgin  lands  instead.  The  busiest  time  in  Macoris  is 
the  crop  season  from  November  to  May.  Many 
laborers  are  then  required,  and  as  native  labor  is  not 
abundant,  large  numbers  of  negroes  come  from  the 
British  West  Indies  to  work  on  the  plantations,  return- 
ing to  their  homes  when  the  cane  has  been  cut. 

Most  of  the  Dominican  sugar  goes  to  the  United 
States  and  a  large  portion  is  eventually  sold  in  Canada 
and  England.  When  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  in 
little  Porto  Rico  is  compared  with  that  grown  in  Santo 
Domingo,  it  is  evident  that  the  Dominican  production 


154  SANTO  DOMINGO 

might  easily  be  increased  to  twenty  times  its  present 
figure. 

While  sugar  attracts  the  foreigner,  the  Dominican's 
favorite  staple  has  been  cacao.  The  cacao  or  chocolate 
tree  grows  in  a  number  of  the  West  India  Islands,  but 
in  none  of  them  is  it  cultivated  to  such  an  extent  as 
in  Santo  Domingo.  Cacao  is  peculiarly  fitted  to  be  a 
"poor  man's  crop,"  as  little  land  and  labor  are  required 
and,  while  the  trees  are  growing,  corn,  bananas  and 
other  crops  can  be  raised  on  the  same  field.  Most  of 
the  cacao  is  raised  on  small  plantations,  producing 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  barrels,  a  barrel  being  worth 
about  eight  dollars.  For  the  preparation  and  planting 
of  the  field  of  a  poor  man  the  whole  family  turns  out  and 
neighbors  often  come  to  help,  regular  planting  bees 
being  organized.  The  larger  landowner  makes  con- 
tracts for  the  preparation  of  his  lands,  paying  at  the 
rate  of  $2  or  32.50  a  tarea. 

The  best  months  for  planting  cacao  are  the  wet 
months,  which  in  the  Cibao  are  May  and  October. 
Small  holes  are  dug  in  the  earth  about  three  yards  apart 
and  three  beans  placed  in  each.  When  the  sprouts 
grow  into  young  trees,  two  of  the  three  should  be  cut 
off,  and  the  best  developed  allowed  to  remain;  but  the 
countrymen  generally  permit  all  three  to  grow,  with 
resulting  dwarfed  trees  and  poor  crops.  To  protect  the 
small  plants  from  the  hot  sun  a  yuca  or  cassava  plant 
is  set  out  next  to  each  one.  While  the  trees  are  growing, 
corn  is  planted  between  the  rows  and  three  or  even  four 
crops  are  obtained  in  each  year.  After  two  years  the 
cacao  trees  begin  to  bloom,  after  three  years  they  begin 
to  give  fruit,  and  their  production  gradually  increases 
until  their  eighth  year  when  they  reach  mature  growth. 
Each  tree  furnishes  about  two  pounds  of  cacao  per  year. 
On  the  larger  plantations  less  attention  is  paid  to  an- 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  155 

ciliary  crops  and  the  cacao  plants  are  raised  in  seed- 
beds, the  seedlings  being  transplanted  to  the  field  after 
six  months  or  a  year.  When  the  pods  containing  the 
cacao  beans  are  ripe  the  beans  are  extracted,  soaked  in 
water  and  then  dried  in  the  sun.  During  the  crop 
season  cacao  beans  are  spread  on  mats  before  every 
native  hut  and  in  the  streets  of  every  town  and  village 
in  the  Cibao,  and  the  sourish  smell  of  the  drying  bean 
pervades  the  air. 

The  principal  cacao  region  is  the  Cibao  and  the  upper 
Seibo  plain,  and  the  largest  plantation,  belonging  to  the 
well-known  Swiss  chocolate  manufacturer,  Suchard,  is 
situated  near  Sabana  la  Mar,  on  the  south  side  of 
Samana  Bay.  The  cacao  here  produced  is  not  of  the 
finest  grade,  such  as  that  grown  in  Ecuador,  but  goes  to 
make  the  cheaper  grades  of  chocolate. 

The  ease  with  which  cacao  is  planted  and  the  profits 
to  be  derived  from  it  often  cause  the  small  farmers  to 
neglect  everything  else  for  cacao  and  purchase  articles  of 
food  which  they  could  themselves  raise.  The  conse- 
quence is  that  when  the  cacao  crop  fails,  there  is  wide- 
spread want  and  discontent. 

Cacao  has  been  exported  since  1888,  before  which 
time  it  was  grown  for  local  consumption  only.  For 
years  it  led  the  country's  exports,  until  sugar  took  first 
place  in  1914.  The  greater  portion  of  the  cacao  crop  is 
exported  through  the  port  of  Sanchez,  on  Samana  Bay. 
Formerly  almost  the  whole  crop  went  to  Europe,  Havre 
being  the  chief  market,  but  of  late  years  the  United 
States  has  become  one  of  the  principal  buyers. 

The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  confined  to  the  Cibao 
region,  where  it  was  grown  by  the  Indians  when  the 
Spaniards  landed.  It  is  a  crop  yielding  rapid  returns, 
but  cacao  has  paid  so  much  better  that  the  progress  of 
tobacco  culture  has  been  slow.  The  effort  of  the 


156  SANTO  DOMINGO 

countrymen  to  produce  quantity  rather  than  quality 
has  prevented  the  development  of  the  finer  grades  and 
the  price  paid  for  Dominican  tobacco  is  low.  While  the 
tobacco  grown  is  of  inferior  quality,  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  be  susceptible  of  improvement  as 
the  climatic  and  soil  conditions  of  the  interior  valleys 
are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  tobacco  regions  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico. 

Tobacco  is  grown  mostly  by  small  planters  and  sold 
to  the  large  commercial  houses  of  Santiago  and  Puerto 
Plata.  Practically  the  entire  crop  is  exported  through 
Puerto  Plata.  Before  the  European  war  the  great 
market  for  Dominican  tobacco  was  Hamburg.  Up  to 
1907  tobacco  was  exported  only  in  leaf,  but  since  then  a 
small  cigarette  industry  hag  developed. 

Coffee  is  another  native  crop  the  development  of 
which  has  been  checked  by  the  popularity  of  cacao. 
It  is  also  a  crop  which  can  be  grown  with  profit  on  small 
tracts  of  land.  The  coffee  bushes  flourish  in  the  moun- 
tains and  are  grown  under  the  shade  of  larger  trees. 
A  clearing  having  been  made  in  the  forest,  the  small 
coffee  trees  are  planted  in  rows  or  irregularly  and  near 
each  a  banana  or  plantain  tree.  The  latter  reach  full 
height  within  six  months  and  afford  shade  until  guava 
and  other  shade  trees  planted  on  the  field  have  attained 
sufficient  size.  A  wait  of  five  years  is  necessary  before 
the  coffee  bushes  begin  to  bear,  but  after  that  they  con- 
tinue indefinitely  every  year,  the  only  labor  required 
being  that  of  keeping  the  plantation  clear  of  brush  and 
picking  the  berries  when  they  are  ripe.  The  trees  grow 
to  a  height  of  six  or  eight  feet;  they  bloom  with  a  fra- 
grant, white,  star-like  flower  which  on  withering  leaves 
the  green  embryo  of  the  berry.  When  the  berry  has 
reached  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut  it  turns  red  and  is 
picked,  much  of  the  picking  being  done  by  women. 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  157 

The  berries  are  poured  into  a  simple  machine  which 
extracts  the  two  coffee  beans  encased  in  each  berry. 
The  beans  are  dried  in  the  sun,  on  the  largest  planta- 
tions in  drying  machines.  They  are  then  transported 
to  the  merchants  in  town,  where  they  are  polished  in 
another  machine,  assorted  and  bagged  for  export. 
The  town  of  Moca  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that  the 
principal  coffee  plantations  lie  in  its  vicinity.  Other 
important  coffee  districts  are  Santiago  and  Bani. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  coffee  of  the  Republic  is  ex- 
ported from  Puerto  Plata. 

The  coffee  of  Santo  Domingo  is  of  excellent  quality. 
In  normal  times  the  greater  portion  was  exported  to 
France  and  Germany,  but  most  of  it  now  goes  to  the 
United  States. 

With  one  exception  the  limitless  resources  of  Santo 
Domingo  with  reference  to  fruit  culture  have  remained 
untouched.  The  single  exception  was  the  United  Fruit 
Company's  banana  plantation  at  Sosua,  about  ten 
miles  east  of  Puerto  Plata,  and  even  this  estate  is  at 
present,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  attractiveness  of 
sugar,  being  converted  into  a  sugar  plantation.  Other- 
wise there  has  been  no  attempt  to  raise  fruit  for  export, 
though  the  sweet  and  bitter  orange,  the  lemon,  the 
lime,  the  grapefruit  and  the  paradoxical  sweet  lemon, 
grow  wild.  Pineapples  are  raised  only  for  the  small 
home  consumption.  An  obstacle  to  the  cultivation  of 
such  fruits  at  the  present  time  would  be  the  absence  of 
rapid  fruit  steamers  to  the  United  States.  The  fruits 
peculiar  to  the  torrid  zone  all  grow  in  profusion  and 
among  them  the  native  is  fondest  of  the  juicy  mango, 
the  guava,  the  aguacate  or  alligator  pear,  the  anon  or 
custard  apple,  the  guanabana  or  soursop,  the  mamon 
or  sweetsop,  the  mamey  or  marmalade  fruit,  the  nispero 
or  sapodilla  and  the  tamarind.  From  the  large  palm- 


158  SANTO  DOMINGO 

groves  about  Samana  Bay  cocoanuts  and  a  little  copra 
are  exported,  principally  to  the  United  States. 

Small  attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate  other 
products  to  which  the  country  is  adapted.  Growers  of 
cotton  and  hemp  are  encouraged  by  results,  but  a  rice 
plantation  established  in  the  swamp-lands  near  the 
head  of  Samana  Bay  proved  a  failure  rather  on  account 
of  errors  of  management  than  for  other  reasons. 

In  the  forests  which  cover  her  mountains  Santo 
Domingo  has  hardwoods,  dyewoods  and  building  timber 
of  inestimable  value.  Only  a  generation  ago  mahogany 
trees  grew  all  the  way  to  the  water's  edge,  but  years  of 
wasteful  cutting  have  exhausted  the  nearer  supplies 
and  the  more  valuable  woods  must  now  be  sought  in 
the  interior.  In  the  mountains  and  on  the  high  pla- 
teaus of  the  interior  there  are  hundreds  of  square  miles  of 
Spanish  cedar  and  longleaf  pine.  The  principal  woods 
exported  are  mahogany,  guayacan,  known  to  com- 
merce as  lignum  vitae  (one  of  the  hardest  woods  and 
so  heavy  that  when  in  loading  the  steamer  a  log  drops 
into  the  sea  it  sinks  to  the  bottom  like  iron),  bera  or 
bastard  lignum  vitae,  espinillo  or  yellowwood,  campeche 
or  logwood  (a  famous  dyeing  material),  sparwood  and 
cedar.  Other  forest  products  exported  are  dividivi,  a 
tanning  bark,  and  resins.  Most  of  these  exports  go  to 
the  United  States  and  England.  For  the  preparation 
of  lumber  for  local  needs  there  are  sawmills  in  La  Vega 
and  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros. 

With  regard  to  indigenous  fauna  Santo  Domingo 
occupies  a  position  midway  between  the  diverse  and 
abundant  fauna  of  Cuba  and  the  more  limited  species  of 
the  Leeward  Islands.  Insects  abound  and  in  all  the 
coast  towns  it  is  necessary  to  sleep  under  a  mosquito 
bar.  Wild  bees  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
and  apiculture  has  met  with  much  success. 


Above:  A  roadside  store 

Below:  On  the  Samana  peninsula:  Building  a  house  with  the  products  of 
the  palmtree 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  159 

Of  poisonous  insects  there  are  few.  Those  sometimes 
met  with  are  the  species  of  tarantula  known  as  the  hairy 
spider,  the  spider  known  as  guava,  and  the  blue  spider, 
also  the  scorpion  and  the  centipede.  Their  sting  pro- 
duces intense  pain,  inflammation  and  fever.  They  are 
found  in  crevices,  under  stones,  in  caves,  and  in  rotten 
wood.  The  last  two  are  often  seen  in  old  houses,  but 
daily  use  of  the  broom  and  duster  will  make  them  ap- 
pear but  rarely.  Some  of  these  animals  grow  to  a  large 
size.  On  a  ride  on  the  Haitian  border  my  horse  shied 
at  a  tarantula  in  the  trail,  and  in  calling  my  Dominican 
companion's  attention  to  it,  I  remarked  that  it  was  as 
large  as  a  saucer.  "That  is  nothing,"  he  replied,  "there 
are  many  around  here  as  large  as  a  soup  plate." 

There  are  few  classes  of  reptiles.  Santo  Domingo  is 
a  paradise  where  serpents  are  at  a  discount,  for  they 
are  few  in  number  and  although  occasionally  some  are 
found  of  considerable  size,  they  are  all  harmless.  Liz- 
ards are  plentiful  in  the  forests,  the  largest  class  being 
known  as  iguana,  which  is  eaten  by  some  of  the  country 
people,  as  it  was  in  former  days  by  the  Indians.  The 
lizards  are  all  inoffensive.  A  species  of  alligator  is 
found  in  the  lower  waters  of  the  Yaque  del  Norte  and 
of  the  Yaque  del  Sur,  and  in  the  salt  lakes  on  the 
Haitian  border.  Tortoises  occur  in  such  numbers  that 
their  shell  forms  an  article  of  commerce. 

Crustaceans  and  testaceans  are  abundant  in  number 
though  few  in  species.  A  tiny  oyster  is  found,  not 
much  larger  than  a  thumb-nail,  but  very  succulent. 
The  marine  fauna  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  neighboring 
Antilles,  the  sea  and  rivers  teeming  with  edible  fish,  to 
which,  however,  but  little  attention  is  paid.  Sharks 
infest  the  coasts  and  render  bathing  unsafe  except  be- 
hind protecting  reefs.  Occasionally,  too,  a  manati,  or 
sea-cow,  is  seen.  This  strange  mammal  has  breasts 


160  SANTO  DOMINGO 

which  resemble  those  of  a  human  being  and  emits 
cries  that  sound  almost  human.  It  was  probably  a 
party  of  manati  gamboling  about  in  the  water  which 
induced  Columbus  gravely  to  enter  in  his  logbook  that 
he  had  sighted  mermaids  near  Monte  Cristi. 

Of  birds  there  are  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  species, 
about  ninety-five  of  which  are  residents  and  among 
these  several  peculiar  to  this  island.  The  forests  re- 
sound with  the  cries  of  parrots  and  other  birds  of  beau- 
tiful plumage;  from  any  point  on  the  coast  pelicans  and 
other  ichthyophagous  birds  can  be  observed  darting 
into  the  waters  after  their  prey;  the  lakes  and  rivers 
are  the  home  of  thousands  of  wild  ducks;  myriads  of 
wild  pigeons  breed  in  the  woods;  and  the  number  of 
insectivorous  birds,  including  the  sweet-singing  nightin- 
gale, jilguero  and  turpial,  the  swallow  and  the  small 
pitirre  and  colibri,  is  infinite.  The  caves  are  inhab- 
ited by  swarms  of  bats,  the  guano  of  which,  mingled 
with  the  calcareous  detritus  of  the  rocky  walls, 
is  found  in  great  deposits  and  constitutes  a  good 
fertilizer. 

At  the  time  of  the  discovery  the  Spaniards  found 
very  few  kinds  of  quadruped  mammals.  One  was  the 
agouti,  looking  like  a  large  rat  and  inhabiting  the  for- 
ests; another  the  coati,  similar  to  the  squirrel  and  easily 
domesticated.  Three  other  classes  are  mentioned,  the 
quemi,  mohui  and  perro  mudo  (dumb  dog),  but  are 
not  now  to  be  found  and  as  the  description  of  two  of 
them  almost  tallies  with  that  of  the  others  above  men- 
tioned, it  is  possible  that  different  names  were  applied 
to  the  same  animals.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  reference 
was  made  to  the  solenodon  or  almiqui,  an  animal  long 
thought  to  be  extinct  but  of  which  several  specimens 
have  recently  been  found  in  Santo  Domingo.  This 
animal  is  about  two  feet  long  and  resembles  a  rat, 


FLORA  AND  FAUNA  l6l 

but  having  a  long  prehensile  snout  and  the  habits 
of  an  ant-eater,  it  is  considered  to  be  a  remnant 
of  the  early  zoological  type  from  which  diverged  both 
the  rodents  and  the  insectivorous  animals  of  the 
present. 

The  Spaniards  introduced  the  European  domestic 
animals,  which  immediately  began  to  flourish.  During 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  century  the  principal 
and  for  a  long  time  almost  the  only  industry  of  the 
Spanish  portion  of  the  island  was  cattle-raising.  Some 
of  the  cattle  and  pigs  escaped  to  the  woods  and  reverted 
to  the  wild  state,  and  towards  the  middle  and  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century  great  herds  of  wild  cattle 
roamed  over  the  island.  Such  herds  no  longer  exist, 
but  wild  pigs  have  found  their  way  to  the  most  remote 
recesses  of  the  mountains  and  are  the  plague  of  the 
fields.  The  equine  species,  sprung  from  the  Andalusian 
horses  brought  by  the  Spaniards,  has  degenerated  con- 
siderably and  the  best  horses  in  the  Republic  to-day 
are  of  Porto  Rican  stock,  but  attention  is  at  last  being 
given  to  breeding.  The  largest  herds  of  cattle  roam 
about  in  the  unfenced  arid  regions  of  the  northwest. 
Hides  are  exported  in  large  quantities,  but  there  is  little 
dairying.  Of  late  years  attention  is  being  directed  to 
improving  the  stock  and  several  stock  farms  have  been 
established  near  San  Pedro  de  Macoris. 

Sheep  raising  is  followed  to  some  extent  in  the  arid 
regions  of  the  southwest  and  northwest,  but  the  wool 
is  of  coarse  grade.  An  important  industry  in  these 
regions,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Azua,  is  goat- 
raising.  My  inquiry  as  to  the  population  of  Azua  was 
answered  by  the  purser  of  the  Clyde  line  steamer: 
"About  three  thousand  people  and  about  three  million 
goats."  Though  his  estimate  of  the  number  of  goats 
may  have  been  somewhat  exaggerated,  the  fact  is  that 


162  SANTO  DOMINGO 

they  are  everywhere  in  evidence  and  charge  through 
the  streets  in  droves,  and  at  the  great  Azua  church  I 
found  a  goat  in  the  vestibule  looking  reverently  in. 
Over  nine-tenths  of  the  goatskins  exported  from  the 
Republic  go  to  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    PEOPLE 

Population. — Distribution. — Race. — Descendants  of  American  negroes. — 
Language. — Physical  traits. — Mental  traits. — Amusements. — Dances, 
theaters,  clubs,  carnivals. — Gaming. — Morality. — Homes. 

The  estimates  of  the  early  Spanish  writers  as  to  the 
Indian  population  of  Hispaniola  at  the  time  of  its  first 
settlement  in  1493  range  all  the  way  from  one  million 
to  three  million  inhabitants.  While  it  is  probable  that 
the  former  number  was  nearer  to  the  truth,  it  is  evident 
that  the  island  was  well  inhabited,  for  Columbus  found 
every  valley  swarming  with  natives.  The  severe  labor 
imposed  by  the  Spaniards  made  such  frightful  inroads 
on  the  native  population  that  within  a  decade  labor  for 
the  plantations  and  mines  began  to  grow  scarce  and 
forty  thousand  inhabitants  of  the  Bahama  Islands  were 
imported  to  increase  the  supply.  They  were  lured  on 
board  the  Spanish  transports  by  the  promise  that  they 
were  to  be  conveyed  to  the  beautiful  home  of  their 
departed  ancestors  and  though  they  did  indeed  quickly 
join  their  deceased  relatives,  it  was  not  until  after  a 
taste  of  purgatory  in  the  mines  of  Santo  Domingo.  In 
1507  the  entire  Indian  population  was  estimated  at 
only  70,000,  in  1508  it  had  fallen  to  40,000,  and  in  1514 
to  14,000.  Six  years  later  the  remnant  of  the  aborigines 
united  in  the  mountains  to  resist  the  Spaniards  to  the 
end,  but  in  1533  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  the 
Indians  were  assigned  certain  lands  near  Boya,  thirty 
miles  northeast  of  Santo  Domingo  City.  According  to 


164  SANTO  DOMINGO 

some  authorities  4000  and  according  to  others  only 
600  natives  remained  to  take  advantage  of  this  pro- 
vision. Thereafter  all  mention  of  the  Indians  disap- 
pears from  Dominican  annals.  Types  recalling  Indian 
characteristics  are  sometimes  seen,  however,  and  it  is 
probable  that  some  Indian  blood  is  still  represented  in 
the  country. 

Father  Las  Casas,  the  friend  of  the  Indians,  is 
credited  with  the  suggestion  that  in  place  of  the  frail 
natives  negroes  be  imported  for  labor  in  the  mines  and 
on  the  plantations.  The  earliest  importations  seem  to 
have  taken  place  in  the  opening  years  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  for  as  early  as  1505  King  Ferdinand  authorized 
the  shipment  of  more  negroes  in  lots  of  100.  Later, 
licenses  were  issued  for  the  importation  of  negro  slaves 
by  the  thousands  and  many  more  were  probably 
smuggled  in.  The  Spanish  population  also  grew  rapidly 
until  about  1530  when  the  colony  reached  the  zenith  of 
its  wealth  and  prosperity.  Twelve  years  later,  when 
the  decline  had  become  marked,  it  was  estimated 
that  besides  a  substantial  white  population  there  were 
30,000  negro  slaves  on  the  island.  The  superior  attrac- 
tions of  other  newly  discovered  countries  and  the  fear 
of  piratical  invasions  had  by  1591  decreased  the  total 
population  of  the  colony  to  15,000.  This  number  re- 
mained almost  stationary  until  about  1663  when  it 
began  to  dwindle  further  until  the  low  water  mark  was 
reached,  about  1737,  and  the  entire  population  of  the 
Spanish  portion  of  the  island  was  estimated  at  but 
6,000.  Timely  tariff  concessions  revived  trade  and 
encouraged  immigration  and  new  importations  of 
slaves  the  number  of  inhabitants  increased  rapidly  and 
in  1785  was  reckoned  at  150,000,  including  30,000 
slaves  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  free  colored 
persons. 


THE  PEOPLE  165 

A  decade  later  saw  the  beginning  of  the  negro  insur- 
rection in  the  French  section  of  Santo  Domingo;  the 
horrors  attending  this  war,  the  invasion  of  the  Spanish 
colony  by  the  Haitians,  the  menace  of  further  invasions, 
the  frequent  changes  of  sovereignty,  and  adverse 
economic  conditions,  produced  an  exodus  in  the  course 
of  which  the  great  majority  of  the  white  population 
abandoned  the  island,  many  with  all  their  slaves  and 
dependents.  A  few  returned,  but  in  1809  it  was  cal- 
culated that  the  inhabitants  of  Spanish  Santo  Domingo 
numbered  104,000  and  in  1819  but  63,000,  of  whom  the 
greater  number  were  colored.  During  Haitian  rule, 
from  1822  to  1844,  white  emigration  again  took  place 
and  white  immigration  was  discouraged,  while  settle- 
ments of  negroes  from  Haiti  and  the  United  States 
were  made  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  in- 
crease of  the  population  since  that  time  has  been  subject 
to  little  outside  influence;  there  has  been  practically  no 
emigration,  and  immigration  has  been  insignificant,  the 
few  new  settlers  being  chiefly  negroes  from  the  British 
colonies,  Haitians,  Porto  Ricans,  Syrians  and  European 
merchants.  In  1863  an  ecclesiastical  census,  based  on 
the  returns  of  the  various  parish  priests,  placed  the 
population  at  207,700.  This  number  may  be  described 
as  little  more  than  a  compilation  of  guesses  and  was 
probably  exaggerated.  A  similar  ecclesiastical  census 
taken  in  1888  gave  a  total  of  382,312  inhabitants. 

These  ecclesiastical  computations  were  founded  to 
some  extent  on  parish  records  of  baptisms  and  burials, 
but  this  basis  became  more  and  more  precarious  as 
the  population  increased.  Probably  the  records  most 
nearly  accurate  are  the  baptismal  records  of  the  Church, 
for  almost  every  Dominican  is  baptized  at  some  time 
in  his  life.  The  death  records  are  the  least  complete  on 
account  of  the  obstacles  presented  during  the  civil 


166  SANTO  DOMINGO 

disorders  and  the  distance  at  which  many  country 
people  live  from  the  place  of  registry.  A  law  of  civil 
registry,  requiring  the  inscription  of  all  births,  mar- 
riages and  deaths  has  been  only  indifferently  carried 
out  and  during  times  of  insurrection  entirely  suspended. 
A  government  census  was  begun  in  1908  but  not  con- 
cluded. Any  accurate  computation  is  thus  out  of  the 
question. 

Unofficial  estimates  of  the  population  to-day  range  all 
the  way  from  400,000  to  920,000.  In  1908  an  official 
estimate  based  on  birth  statistics,  placed  it  at  605,000. 
An  unofficial  estimate  in  1917,  made  on  the  assumption 
that  there  are  1000  inhabitants  for  every  37  births  re- 
ported, calculated  the  total  population  at  795,432,  thus 
distributed  among  the  several  provinces: 

Santo  Domingo 127.976 

Santiago 123,972 

La  Vega 105,000 

Pacificador 90,569 

Seibo 68,135 

Espaillat 64,108 

Azua 59,783 

Puerto  Plata 55,864 

Monte  Cristi 4M59 

Macoris 28,000 

Barahona 17,891 

Samana 12,675 

The  estimate  of  37  births  per  1000  inhabitants  is 
probably  too  large  as  the  birth-rate  in  Jamaica  is  but 
34.6,  in  the  Leeward  Islands  33,  and  in  the  birth- 
registration  area  of  the  United  States  only  24.9.  A 
reduction  of  ten  per  cent  in  the  above  figures  would 
probably  make  them  more  nearly  correct.  That  would 
give  a  total  population  of  about  715,000. 


THE  PEOPLE  167 

Accepting  the  number  of  inhabitants  as  715,000  the 
population  per  square  mile  is  about  39.6.  A  comparison 
with  the  surrounding  West  Indian  countries  reveals 
considerable  disproportion.  The  Dominican  Republic 
is  not  quite  one-half  the  size  of  Cuba  but  has  only  one- 
fourth  the  number  of  inhabitants;  it  is  almost  double 
the  size  of  the  Republic  of  Haiti  but  has  less  than  one- 
half  the  inhabitants;  it  is  five  times  the  size  of  Porto 
Rico  and  has  but  one-half  the  population;  it  is  one 
hundred  and  seven  times  as  large  as  Barbados  but  has 
only  four  times  the  population.  If  the  Dominican 
Republic  were  as  densely  populated  as  the  neighboring 
Republic  of  Haiti,  it  would  have  3,000,000  inhabitants; 
if  the  population  were  as  dense  as  that  of  Porto  Rico,  it 
would  be  7,000,000;  if  the  Republic  were  as  densely 
inhabited  as  Barbados  it  would  have  over  21,000,000 
people.  Though  the  climatic  and  topographical  condi- 
tions of  the  country  would  not  permit  it  to  become  as 
thickly  populated  as  Barbados,  there  is  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  support  a  population  proportional  to  that 
of  Porto  Rico. 

As  in  the  other  West  India  Islands  the  population  is 
principally  rural.  There  are  probably  not  more  than  a 
dozen  towns  in  the  Republic  with  more  than  1500  in- 
habitants. A  government  census  of  Santo  Domingo 
City,  the  capital  and  largest  urban  center,  taken  in 
November,  1908,  showed  a  population  of  18,626,  and 
the  number  is  now  estimated  as  21,000. 

A  census  of  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  taken  by  the 
municipal  authorities  in  1903,  showed  an  urban  popula- 
tion of  10,921,  the  present  estimate  being  14,000.  The 
estimated  population  of  Puerto  Plata  is  about  7000; 
La  Vega  and  San  Pedro  de  Macoris  are  believed  to  have 
about  5000  inhabitants  each,  but  in  every  other  case  the 
urban  population  falls  below  3000. 


l68  SANTO  DOMINGO 

The  population  of  the  Dominican  Republic  is  not 
scattered  uniformly  over  the  country,  but  is  to  be  found 
chiefly  in  a  fringe  along  the  shore  all  the  way  from 
Monte  Cristi  to  Barahona,  and  in  the  Cibao  Valley. 
The  most  densely  populated  region  is  that  part  of  the 
Cibao  Valley  known  as  the  Royal  Plain.  In  the  moun- 
tainous interior  there  are  vast  stretches  almost  or 
entirely  uninhabited;  and  remote  valleys  which  have 
not  been  visited  since  the  days  of  the  conquest. 

The  vicissitudes  through  which  Santo  Domingo  has 
passed,  the  departure  of  so  large  a  proportion  of  whites 
in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the 
intermingling  of  blood  before  and  since  that  time  have 
determined  the  character  of  the  population.  At  the 
present  time  the  pure  negroes  are  in  a  minority,  con- 
stituting probably  less  than  one-fourth  the  entire 
population.  The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
of  mixed  Spanish  and  African  blood,  their  color  ranging 
from  black  to  white.  The  lighter  shades  predominate, 
especially  in  the  Cibao.  There  is  also  a  sprinkling  of 
pure  whites,  the  majority  of  whom  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Cibao  region  or  are  foreigners  residing  in  the  larger 
cities.  Many  families  would  pass  for  white  anywhere, 
showing  absolutely  no  trace  of  colored  blood,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  believe  confidential  assurances  of  their 
intimate  friends,  indicating  a  different  condition.  A 
few  families  trace  their  ancestry  back  to  the  first 
Spanish  colonists.  As  most  of  the  blacks  live  south  of 
the  central  mountain  range  the  population  of  this 
region  is  a  good  deal  darker  than  that  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  island.  The  census  of  Santo  Domingo  City 
in  1908  reported  7016  whites,  6934  colored  persons  and 
4676  blacks,  but  apart  from  the  circumstance  that 
numerous  white  foreigners  reside  in  the  capital,  it  is 
probable  that  many  persons  were  classified  as  white 


THE  PEOPLE  169 

who  would  have  been  considered  colored  in  the  United 
States  under  the  stricter  rules  there  prevailing. 

A  comparison  with  Haiti  discloses  marked  racial 
differences.  In  the  French-speaking  republic  about 
ninety  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  are  pure  blacks,  the 
remainder  being  mulattoes.  The  distinction  between 
the  two  countries  is  due  to  several  circumstances:  in 
Santo  Domingo  the  pure  blacks  have  never  been  in  a 
majority;  the  whites  have  never  all  left  the  country; 
massacres  of  mulattoes  and  whites  have  never  taken 
place;  there  have  never  been  political  parties  based  on 
color;  and  the  relations  between  the  races  have  always 
been  cordial.  In  company,  side  by  side,  mulattoes, 
blacks  and  whites  have  lived,  worked,  enjoyed  them- 
selves and  fought  their  revolutions.  There  is  abso- 
lutely no  color  line.  A  friend  of  mine  from  Virginia 
received  quite  a  shock  the  first  time  he  attended  a 
state  ball  in  Santo  Domingo  and  saw  an  immense 
negro,  as  black  as  coal,  a  member  of  Congress,  dancing 
with  a  girl  as  white  as  any  of  the  foreign  ladies  present. 
He  rushed  to  the  refreshment  room  and  beckoned  to 
a  tall  mulatto  in  a  dress  suit:  "I'll  have  something  to 
cool  off,  here  waiter — "  He  was  stopped  just  in  time 
for  he  was  mistaking  the  secretary  of  foreign  affairs  for  a 
waiter;  but  after  this  experience  he  was  afraid  of  giving 
his  order  to  anyone  else  for  fear  he  might  be  offending 
some  other  high  official.  The  blacks  are  commonly  the 
lower  laborers,  but  negroes  are  to  be  found  in  all  grades 
of  society  and  are  not  infrequently  represented  in  the 
cabinet  itself.  Of  the  presidents  the  majority  have 
been  of  mixed  blood,  but  several,  like  Luperon  and 
Heureaux,  were  full-blood  negroes.  It  appears  that  the 
strong  strain  of  white  blood  in  the  country  has  elevated 
all,  mulattoes  and  negroes.  The  negroes  have  pro- 
duced men  of  high  ability:  Heureaux,  for  instance, 


170  SANTO  DOMINGO 

though  unscrupulous  and  cruel,  was  a  man  of  remark- 
able sagacity  and  energy. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  for  a  moment  that  the 
Dominicans  are  inimical  to  whites  or,  like  their  neigh- 
bors, the  Haitians,  prefer  to  see  their  country  peopled 
by  negroes  only.  On  the  contrary  they  are  anxious  to 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  white  race  and  are  not 
pleased  by  reference  to  their  mixed  blood.  For  this 
reason  the  former  policy  of  the  United  States  of  sending 
colored  men  as  ministers  and  consuls  to  Santo  Domingo 
was  resented  by  the  Dominicans  who  saw  therein  an 
evidence  of  contempt.  I  have  often  heard  Dominican 
statesmen  express  an  eager  desire  for  immigration, 
but  only  white  immigration.  This  sentiment  is  re- 
flected in  immigration  laws  and  in  several  concessions 
granted  in  late  years  in  which  the  concessionnaire  was 
prohibited  from  importing  laborers  of  African  or  Asiatic 
descent.  The  Congress  has  even  made  appropriations 
for  the  introduction  of  white  families  and  their  settle- 
ment along  the  Haitian  frontier,  but  the  isolation  of 
this  region  and  other  circumstances  made  such  laws 
impracticable  of  execution. 

During  Haitian  rule,  from  1822  to  1844,  a  different 
policy  prevailed.  President  Boyer  was  desirous  of 
seeing  every  part  of  the  island  populated  by  blacks  and 
accordingly  settled  Haitian  negroes  in  various  parts  of 
Santo  Domingo  and  encouraged  negro  immigration 
from  the  United  States  by  premiums  to  ship  captains 
bringing  such  immigrants.  The  American  negroes  were 
distributed  in  Haiti  and  in  Santo  Domingo,  particularly 
near  Puerto  Plata  and  in  the  Samana  peninsula.  The 
Puerto  Plata  settlers  have  mingled  with  the  rest  of  the 
population,  but  around  the  town  of  Samana,  where  the 
largest  settlement,  consisting  of  some  sixty  families,  was 
made,  the  descendants  of  the  American  immigrants  still 


THE  PEOPLE  171 

form  a  distinct  class.  Large  portions  of  the  peninsula 
are  taken  up  by  their  well  kept  farms,  and  one  of  the 
sections  or  districts  into  which  the  commune  of  Samana 
is  divided,  is  officially  named  "Seccion  de  los  Amer- 
icanos." The  people  still  preserve  the  English  language 
and  proudly  proclaim  that  they  are  "of  American 
abstraction." 

They  have  kept  considerably  aloof  and  only  in  recent 
years  have  there  been  marriages  between  them  and  their 
Spanish-speaking  neighbors.  Their  exclusiveness  has 
more  than  once  been  criticised  by  Dominicans.  Of  the 
original  settlers  all  have  passed  away,  their  surviving 
children  are  advanced  in  age  and  the  third  generation  is 
in  its  prime.  The  Methodist  preacher  of  the  district,  a 
kindly  black  man,  presented  me  to  the  oldest  person  of 
the  American  colony,  a  woman  of  about  eighty  years  of 
age  who  was  born  only  a  few  years  after  her  parents 
arrived  from  Virginia.  As  the  old  woman  stood  smiling 
in  the  door  of  her  little  cabin,  the  walls  of  which  were 
covered  with  leafy  creepers,  she  looked  the  picture  of  an 
old  Southern  mammy.  Her  dialect  was  typical;  when 
I  said:  "I  am  glad  to  meet  you,  Mrs.  Sheppard,"  she 
answered,  beaming,  "Me  likewise,  Fse  always  glad  to 
meet  Americans,  I  is."  Several  of  the  American  negroes 
have  distinguished  themselves  in  military  matters,  one 
of  the  most  noted  being  General  Anderson  who  grew 
gray  in  many  revolutions. 

Between  the  coast  towns  and  the  ports  of  the  sur- 
rounding countries,  particularly  Porto  Rico,  there  is 
considerable  coming  and  going.  This  was  called  to  my 
attention  the  first  time  I  set  foot  on  Dominican  soil, 
when  a  large  negro  darted  out  from  a  group  of  loungers 
on  the  wharf  and  seized  my  suit-case,  crying:  "Let  me 
carry  your  baggage,  Judge."  Surprised,  I  inquired  how 
he  knew  me,  whereupon  he  asked  reproachfully:  "Don't 


172  SANTO  DOMINGO 

you  remember  you  sent  me  to  jail  in  Mayaguez  for 
shampooing  a  saucy  stevedore's  head  with  a  brick?" 

Whether  as  a  settler  or  transient  visitor  the  foreigner 
may  be  sure  of  courteous  and  respectful  treatment  so 
long  as  he  himself  observes  the  proprieties.  The  laws 
grant  the  foreigner  rights  as  ample  as  in  the  most  ad- 
vanced countries  of  the  world. 

The  language  of  Santo  Domingo  is  Spanish,  and  the 
comparative  purity  with  which  it  is  spoken  is  remark- 
able when  the  long  period  of  isolation  of  the  country  and 
the  extended  duration  of  Haitian  rule  are  considered. 
In  this  particular  Haiti  offers  a  contrast,  for  though 
French  is  the  official  language  the  mass  of  the  people 
speak  Creole  French,  a  patois  unintelligible  to  anyone 
who  has  not  lived  in  Haiti.  The  Dominicans  do  not 
lisp  the  "c"  as  do  the  Spaniards,  and  other  peculiarities 
of  Spanish  as  spoken  in  America  are  manifest,  but  on 
the  whole  the  difference  between  the  Dominican's 
Spanish  and  the  Spaniard's  Spanish  may  be  compared 
to  the  difference  between  English  as  spoken  in  the  United 
States  and  as  spoken  in  England.  Like  several  other 
Spanish-American  nations  the  Dominicans  are  to  be 
distinguished  by  their  preference  for  certain  words  and 
endings,  and  by  their  accent  and  inflection.  As  every- 
where else  the  unlettered  classes  are  given  to  gram- 
matical faults  and  provincialisms,  but  on  the  whole  the 
vocabulary  of  the  Dominican  peasant  contains  fewer 
archaic  expressions  and  Indian  roots  than  that  of  the 
Porto  Rican  "jibaro"  and  is  more  easily  understood  by 
the  outsider.  Slight  differences  of  pronunciation  are 
noticeable  in  different  parts  of  the  country:  the  people 
of  Seibo  are  inclined  to  use  the  vowel  "i"  instead 
of  the  consonant  "r"  and  say  "poique"  instead  of 
"porque,"  somewhat  as  the  New  York  street  urchin 
says  "boid"  for  "bird";  the  people  of  Santiago  some- 


THE  PEOPLE  173 

times  drop  the  "r"  entirely  and  say  "poque,"  as  the 
Southern  negro  in  the  United  States  says  "fo"  for 
"four";  the  peasants  of  Puerto  Plata  show  a  tendency 
to  use  the  "u"  instead  of  "o"  and  say  "tudu"  instead 
of  "  todo,"  like  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  Catalonia  in 
Spain.  The  Azuans  claim  to  speak  the  best  Spanish  of 
the  Republic,  but  their  claim  is  disputed  by  other 
provinces. 

Besides  Spanish,  the  English  and  French  languages 
are  heard  to  a  limited  extent.  On  the  Samana  penin- 
sula, where  the  descendants  of  American  negroes  are  in  a 
majority,  as  much  English  is  spoken  as  Spanish,  and 
in  the  coast  towns,  San  Pedro  de  Macoris,  Puerto 
Plata,  Monte  Cristi  and  Santo  Domingo,  it  is  also  often 
heard.  In  these  cities  it  is  usually  the  singsong  English 
of  negroes  from  the  British  colonies.  Along  the  Haitian 
border  and  at  the  extremity  of  the  Samana  peninsula, 
where  a  Haitian  colony  was  planted  by  President 
Boyer,  the  French  language  is  spoken.  On  the  wharf  at 
Monte  Cristi  I  have  encountered  fruit-vendors  from 
the  interior  who  spoke  no  language  except  Creole 
French.  Some  persons  who  have  been  born  and  bred 
on  the  Samana  peninsula  know  not  a  word  of  Spanish 
but  only  English.  Many  members  of  the  wealthier 
class  of  the  Republic  have  studied  or  traveled  in 
Europe  or  the  United  States  and  speak  one  or  more 
foreign  languages.  In  Puerto  Plata  I  was  surprised  to 
hear  a  jet-black  negro  speak  German  fluently;  he  had 
been  educated  in  a  commercial  school  in  Hamburg. 
The  larger  cities  have  their  foreign  colonies,  consisting 
principally  of  merchants,  and  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe  are  represented. 

As  a  race  the  Dominicans  are  robust  and  sturdy.  All 
the  Dominican  presidents  of  late  years  have  been  men 
of  commanding  physique,  fitting  representatives  of 


174  SANTO  DOMINGO 

their  people.  As  far  as  industry  is  concerned  the  aver- 
age Dominican  is  little  more  laborious  than  absolutely 
necessary  to  support  himself  and  his  family.  Why 
should  he  do  more  when  nature  has  been  so  bountiful 
and  when  in  the  past  any  accumulated  fruits  of  his 
toil  might  have  been  swept  away  by  the  next  revolu- 
tion? The  spirit  of  the  tropics  pervades  the  country 
and  the  tendency  not  to  do  to-day  what  can  be  con- 
veniently left  for  "manana"  is  constantly  observed. 

The  Dominican  women  are  as  a  rule  graceful  of  body 
and  fair  of  face,  with  large  and  beautiful  eyes.  They 
make  devoted  wives  and  loving  mothers.  The  ladies  of 
the  better  class  are  quite  as  susceptible  to  the  allure- 
ments of  Parisian  fashions  as  their  American  and 
European  cousins,  and  the  scenes  at  balls  and  at  evening 
promenades  on  the  plaza  are  very  attractive.  The  heat 
of  the  climate  makes  a  liberal  use  of  powder  necessary, 
,and  it  almost  seems  as  if  the  darker  the  color  of  the 
woman  the  greater  is  her  fondness  for  powder,  so  that 
some  of  the  negresses  assume  an  almost  grayish  hue. 
The  Dominican  woman  is  very  domestic,  she  rarely 
goes  out  except  to  church,  to  an  occasional  dance  or 
to  the  band  concerts  on  the  plaza.  Before  her  marriage 
she  is  carefully  chaperoned  and  guarded;  all  courting 
takes  place  in  the  presence  of  her  mother  or  some  other 
near  relative. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  mixture  of  African  blood 
and  long  isolation  of  the  Dominican  race,  the  strong 
personality  of  the  Spaniard  has  survived  unmodified 
and  the  population  is  to-day  as  thoroughly  Spanish  in 
character,  customs  and  mode  of  thinking  as  the  people 
of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  How  completely  the  Spanish 
consciousness  pervades  the  country  was  illustrated  by  a 
remark  made  to  an  American  naval  officer  by  the  mayor 
of  an  inland  town  of  Santo  Domingo;  he  was  a  very 


THE  PEOPLE  175 

black  negro,  but  in  the  course  of  a  discussion  observed: 
"Your  arguments  will  fit  Anglo-Saxons,  but  we  Latins 
are  a  different  people."  The  first  trait  noticeable  is  the 
politeness  of  Dominicans  of  every  degree.  Only  once 
have  I  met  a  rude  official  and  that  by  a  curious  coin- 
cidence was  the  very  first  one  with  whom  I  had  dealings, 
but  after  this  beginning  there  were  no  further  exceptions 
to  the  rule.  A  charming  characteristic  is  the  open- 
hearted  hospitality  everywhere  encountered.  The 
stranger  who  is  introduced  in  any  home  is  immediately 
assured  in  the  customary  Spanish  way:  "This  is  your 
house."  The  words,  though  figuratively  spoken,  are 
sincere,  and  the  hosts  are  glad  to  have  their  new  friend 
visit  their  house  as  though  it  were  his  own.  As  com- 
panions the  Dominicans  are  delightful,  being  generally 
jovial  and  amiable.  Some  there  are,  especially  among 
the  country  people,  whose  natural  reticence  makes 
them  seem  sullen,  but  once  the  ice  is  broken  they  are 
quite  as  light-hearted  as  the  others. 

In  the  idealistic  tendency  of  their  mind  the  Domin- 
icans strongly  show  their  brotherhood  with  the  other 
Spanish  peoples.  In  this  connection  the  spirit  of  their 
renowned  kinsman,  Don  Quixote  de  la  Mancha,  is  often 
in  evidence.  When  one  of  them  mounts  his  Rocinante 
in  defense  of  some  particularly  attractive  abstract  prop- 
osition, nothing  less  than  a  blow  from  a  windmill  will 
bring  him  back  to  reality.  And  so  when  any  person 
or  group  of  persons  become  enamored  of  an  idea  they 
are  unwilling  to  brook  contradiction  or  compromise. 
The  inclination  of  the  majority  to  do  their  will  irrespec- 
tive of  the  wishes  of  the  minority  and  the  unwillingness 
of  the  minority  to  bow  to  the  resolutions  of  the  majority 
have  been  and  will  continue  to  be  grave  problems  in  the 
government  of  the  country.  Even  in  personal  relations 
a  spirit  of  intolerance  can  frequently  be  noticed  and 


176  SANTO  DOMINGO 

while  almost  anything  is  forgiven  a  friend,  not  a  single 
redeeming  feature  is  recognized  in  an  enemy.  To  their 
idealistic  tendency  may  be  ascribed  the  worship  of  the 
words  "patriotism"  and  "liberty."  Unnumbered  sins 
have  been  committed  under  the  cloak  of  patriotism, 
and  true  personal  liberty,  such  as  it  is  understood  in 
the  United  States,  has  never  prevailed  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo; but  the  adoration  of  these  conceptions  continues 
and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  now,  with  American  as- 
sistance, it  will  bring  real  and  lasting  liberty  to  the 
country.  Perhaps  it  is  their  idealism,  as  much  as  their 
isolation,  which  causes  the  Dominicans  to  take  them- 
selves so  very  seriously  and  renders  them  so  extremely 
sensitive  to  criticism  or  jokes  on  the  subject  of  their 
country,  customs  or  revolutions. 

Foreigners  sometimes  complain  that  the  affirmations 
of  Dominicans  cannot  be  trusted.  In  many  cases  in- 
vestigation has  shown  that  these  foreigners  were  misled 
with  regard  to  some  mine,  woodland  or  other  property 
they  had  come  to  buy.  Persons  anxious  to  sell  mines 
and  other  undeveloped  properties  have  not  distin- 
guished themselves  for  veracity  in  any  country,  and 
with  regard  to  sincerity  in  general  the  Dominicans  may 
be  regarded  as  no  better  but  certainly  no  worse  than 
the  general  run  of  humanity.  With  their  personal 
friends  they  are  generally  loyal  and  true,  but  in  their 
political  relations  the  picture  is  not  so  attractive;  for 
while  there  have  been  many  cases  where  subordinates 
have  followed  their  fallen  chief  into  exile  rather  than 
submit  to  the  victor,  it  is  saddening  to  note  the  fre- 
quency with  which  governors  of  provinces  and  other 
local  authorities  have  betrayed  the  confidence  reposed 
in  them  by  the  chief  executive,  and  have  initiated  or 
joined  revolutionary  uprisings.  I  have  heard  both 
ex-President  Jimenez  and  ex-President  Morales  sorrow- 


THE  PEOPLE  177 

fully  complain  that  their  fall  was  due  to  the  treachery 
of  trusted  subordinates.  A  particularly  repulsive  case 
of  perfidiousness  was  that  of  General  Luis  Felipe  Vidal, 
a  prominent  politician,  who  participated  in  the  murder 
of  President  Caceres,  though  he  had  only  a  few  hours 
before  visited  the  President,  played  billiards  with  him 
and  fondled  his  infant  daughter. 

Of  all  amusements  there  is  none  which  appeals  so 
strongly  to  every  class  of  the  population  as  dancing. 
Every  public  holiday  is  an  excuse  for  the  giving  of  a 
"baile"  or  dance,  and  when  holidays  are  scarce  the 
"baile"  is  arranged  anyhow.  So,  while  elsewhere 
special  occasions  are  celebrated  by  banquets,  here  the 
rule  is  to  give  a  dance.  Historical  anniversaries,  polit- 
ical triumphs,  religious  holidays,  weddings,  birthdays, 
christenings:  all  are  celebrated  by  dances.  Waltz  music 
is  popular  but  the  favorite  dance  music  is  the  pretty 
Porto  Rican  "danza,"  which  is  kin  to  Mexican  airs  and 
to  the  Cuban  "guaracha"  and  may  be  compared  to  a 
flowing  brook,  now  gliding  along  serenely,  now  rushing 
in  cascades.  The  dances  are  often  interrupted  by  the 
serving  of  sweets  and  ices. 

In  the  country  the  dance  music  is  quite  different.  A 
rhythmic  beating  is  kept  up  on  a  drum  made  of  a  barrel 
or  hollow  log  and  rude  fiddles  or  guitars  or  an  accordion 
play  an  accompaniment.  To  the  traveler,  riding  along 
his  road  at  night,  the  deep  regular  rumbling  of  the 
drums  of  distant  "bailes"  comes  with  indescribable 
weirdness.  In  some  dances  the  participants  engage  in 
a  monotonous  chant,  in  others  there  are  pauses  in  which 
the  young  men  must  quickly  improvise  verses  on  some 
subject  suggested  by  one  of  the  lassies.  In  the  cities 
the  dances  begin  at  ten  o'clock  at  night  and  last  until 
the  wee  hours  of  morning,  but  in  the  country  they 
begin  at  almost  any  time  and  occasionally  last  two 


178  SANTO  DOMINGO 

or  three  days — especially  during  the  Christmas  holi- 
days. 

These  country  dances  with  drum  accompaniment  are 
similar  to  those  popular  among  the  negroes  in  Porto 
Rico  and  are  probably  an  African  legacy.  But,  like 
Porto  Rico,  the  Dominican  Republic  is  absolutely  free 
from  the  practise  of  those  '  barbarous  negro  rites,  of 
which  dances  like  these  often  form  part,  and  which  are 
known  in  Haiti  under  the  name  of  "voudou,"  in  Cuba 
under  that  of  "witchcraft"  and  in  the  British  West 
Indies  under  that  of  "obeah,"  and  which  sometimes  lead 
even  to  human  sacrifices.  This  is  all  the  more  remark- 
able in  Santo  Domingo  as  the  adjoining  Republic  of 
Haiti  has  been  the  worst  sufferer  from  such  practices. 

The  country  dances  are  occasionally  the  scenes  of 
violent  personal  altercations.  While  drunkenness  is 
very  rare  and  a  drunkard  is  regarded  almost  as  a  social 
outcast,  the  countrymen  are  fond  of  regaling  them- 
selves with  rum  made  of  cane  juice,  and  at  dances 
where  such  rum  is  served  it  is  not  infrequent  for  some 
one  to  become  unduly  excited.  If  he  happened  to  meet 
another  in  the  same  condition  and  a  controversy  arose 
with  reference  to  some  dusky  damsel,  a  frequent  un- 
fortunate outcome  was,  until  lately,  for  both  to  draw 
revolvers  and  blaze  away  at  each  other  and  if  ejected 
from  the  house  V>  stand  nearby  and  fire  through  the 
wooden  walls.  In  Porto  Rico  such  affairs  are  decided 
with  the  machete  and  only  the  immediate  combatants 
are  hurt,  but  revolver  bullets  are  more  dangerous  to 
the  innocent  bystander  than  to  those  doing  the  shoot- 
ing. In  Macoris  I  was  told  of  a  dance  where  the  casual- 
ties were  fifteen  killed — more  than  in  the  average  revolu- 
tion. Yet  so  deep-seated  is  the  fondness  for  dancing 
that  after  the  smoke  has  cleared  away  and  the  dead  or 
wounded  victim  been  removed,  it  has  often  happened 


THE  PEOPLE  179 

that  the  ladies  dried  their  tears  and  men  and  women 
continued  with  the  "baile." 

Up  to  the  time  of  American  intervention  in  1916,  the 
practise  of  carrying  weapons  was  general.  In  the  coun- 
try a  man  strapped  on  his  pistol  or  carried  his  gun  as 
he  would  in  other  countries  put  on  his  necktie  or  take 
up  his  cane.  At  the  railroad  stations  in  the  Cibao  I 
have  sometimes  observed  everyone  congregated  about 
the  station  wearing  a  revolver  more  or  less  visible, 
except  two  or  three,  evidently  the  poorest  farm-laborers, 
who  could  not  afford  anything  more  than  a  dirk  and 
who  gazed  at  the  others  with  envious  eyes.  Beautiful 
pearl-handled  revolvers  were  proudly  exhibited  to  the 
public  eye,  and  on  one  occasion  I  saw  a  little  boy  not 
over  ten  years  old  with  a  revolver  that  reached  to  his 
knee.  The  habit  was  all  the  more  indefensible  as  it  was 
absolutely  unnecessary,  Santo  Domingo  being  as  safe  a 
country  to  travel  in  as  any  other.  Governors  of  prov- 
inces sometimes  forbade  the  carrying  of  arms,  but  the 
prohibition  was  rarely  enforced  with  reference  to  their 
friends  and  adherents.  The  American  authorities  have 
put  a  stop  to  the  habit,  however,  and  confiscated  all 
the  arms  they  could  find;  some  15,000  rifles  and  re- 
volvers have  thus  been  taken  up. 

After  all,  the  average  Dominican  will  resent  a  shot 
less  than  a  blow.  A  story  is  told  of  a  prominent  youth 
in  the  capital  who  received  a  slap  during  a  quarrel;  the 
aggressor  fled,  but  the  young  man  kept  holding  his 
handkerchief  to  his  cheek  for  days  until  he  met  his 
assailant  and  was  able  to  wipe  out  the  insult  in  blood. 

Only  in  the  larger  towns  are  there  facilities  for  the 
gratification  of  the  popular  fondness  for  theatrical  per- 
formances. Puerto  Plata  has  a  pretty  theatre.  In 
Santo  Domingo  City  the  ancient  Jesuit  church,  long 
abandoned,  was  converted  into  a  theater,  the  stage 


180  SANTO  DOMINGO 

being  located  where  the  altar  formerly  stood,  the  boxes 
occupying  the  aisles,  and  the  chairs  of  the  audience 
being  arranged  in  the  nave;  but  a  new  open-air  theatre, 
the  "Teatro  Independencia,"  is  more  commodious. 
The  Spanish  drama  is  popular,  as  well  as  the  delightful 
Spanish  "zarzuela"  or  musical  comedy.  Owing  to  the 
isolation  of  the  country  it  is  not  often  visited  by  good 
professional  troupes,  and  the  interior  is  entirely  de- 
pendent upon  amateur  talent. 

In  social  life  the  clubs  are  prominent  features.  A 
town  must  be  unimportant  indeed  if  it  has  not  at  least 
one  club  where  the  men  can  meet,  read  the  papers  and 
play  cards  or  billiards.  The  first  attention  shown  the 
stranger  within  the  gates  is  to  take  him  to  the  club  and 
enroll  him  as  a  visitor,  this  action  being  equivalent  to 
a  general  local  introduction.  The  clubs  give  pleasant 
musical  and  literary  entertainments  and  dances  at- 
tended by  the  best  local  society.  In  Santo  Domingo, 
Puerto  Plata  and  Santiago  the  ladies  have  a  club  of 
their  own  where  they  can  meet  and  chat  to  their  hearts' 
content.  Needless  to  say  the  most  popular  entertain- 
ments and  dances  are  those  given  by  the  "Club  de 
Damas."  All  these  clubs  have  been  of  great  value  in 
the  social  development  of  the  country  and  many  of 
them  have  given  important  impulses  to  education. 

Another  valuable  contribution  to  civic  development 
is  rendered  by  the  municipal  bands  existing  in  many 
towns.  They  are  voluntary  associations  and  tend  to 
awaken  in  the  inhabitants  an  interest  and  pride  in  their 
city.  On  Sunday  night  and  sometimes  on  other  nights 
during  the  week  they  play  on  the  plaza,  while  the  peo- 
ple, following  the  usual  custom  in  the  Spanish  cities, 
promenade  up  and  down.  Such  scenes  are  very  attrac- 
tive, the  ladies,  dressed  in  their  best,  with  their  light 
gowns  brilliant  in  the  moonlight;  the  men  walking  with 


Above:    Room  in  Young  Men's  Club,   "Casino  de  la  Juventud,"   Santo 
Domingo  City 

Below:  A  Holiday  Gathering,  Santo  Domingo  City 


THE  PEOPLE  181 

them  or  watching  the  promenaders.  It  is  on  the  plaza 
and  in  the  ball-room  where  Cupid's  arrows  do  most 
execution. 

Of  late  years  some  interest  has  been  shown  in  ath- 
letics, and  baseball  has  invaded  the  island.  Bicycle 
races  occasionally  form  part  of  public  celebrations,  and 
horse-races  and  tournaments  have  long  been  popular. 

Santo  Domingo  may  be  said  to  have  two  carnivals, 
one  on  St.  Andrew's  day,  November  30,  the  other  dur- 
ing the  three  days  preceding  Lent.  The  former  is  the 
more  exciting.  Until  recent  years  there  was  not  a  per- 
son in  the  capital  and  Santiago,  where  the  populace  was 
most  given  to  the  typical  diversion  of  the  day,  who  did 
not  voluntarily  or  involuntarily  participate  therein. 
The  diversion  consisted  in  throwing  water  or  flour  or 
both  on  everyone  within  reach.  The  poorer  people 
would  arm  themselves  with  great  syringes  and  discharge 
them  at  every  passerby  or  through  the  keyholes  of 
house-doors.  Others  would  station  themselves  at 
points  of  vantage  with  barrels  and  tubs  of  water  and 
duck  the  unwary  they  were  able  to  entrap.  People  of 
the  better  class  would  place  great  tubs  of  water  on  their 
balconies  or  roofs,  which  the  servants  would  assiduously 
keep  filled  while  their  masters  emptied  buckets-full  on 
friends  in  the  street.  The  young  men  rode  through 
the  streets  in  open  carriages,  bombarding  the  ladies  on 
balconies  and  housetops  with  eggs  filled  with  perfumed 
water,  and  receiving  drenchings  in  return.  Within  the 
last  few  years  the  authorities  have  restricted  or  pro- 
hibited the  throwing  of  water,  and  the  principal  cele- 
bration of  the  day  is  now  what  is  called  a  "white 
dance"  given  by  the  better  society,  at  which  the  par- 
ticipants are  supposed  to  come  dressed  in  white  in  order 
that  the  many-colored  confetti,  serpentines  and  gilt 
powders  which  those  present  throw  at  each  other  be- 


1 82  SANTO  DOMINGO 

tween  dances,  may  appear  to  better  effect.  During 
the  carnival  proper,  before  Lent,  the  streets  are  filled 
with  masked  persons  in  groups  or  alone,  who  dance, 
make  impudent  remarks  or  otherwise  indulge  in  non- 
sense, to  the  special  delight  of  the  ubiquitous  small  boy. 
The  better  class  celebrate  with  masquerade  balls,  where 
the  merry  spirit  of  the  Dominican  is  given  free  rein. 

The  principal  vice  of  the  country  is  gaming.  Men  of 
the  better  class  play  cards,  dominoes,  chess,  checkers 
and  billiards,  for  money,  but  they  do  so  rather  for 
pastime  than  for  gain.  Among  the  poorer  classes, 
however,  the  predominant  idea  is  that  of  making  money 
quickly.  Cards  and  dice  are  often  used,  but  the  typical 
form  of  gambling,  the  one  at  which  the  poor  countryman 
is  fondest  of  staking  his  hard-earned  wages,  is  the  cock- 
fight. Every  town  has  its  cockpit  where  on  Sundays 
and  holidays  the  barbarous  sport  is  carried  on  in  the 
presence  of  crowds  of  whooping,  screaming  spectators 
who  often  ride  miles  to  attend.  The  authorities  claim 
that  efforts  have  been  made  to  stop  this  sport,  but  that 
they  have  all  been  unavailing.  It  constitutes  a  source 
of  municipal  income,  the  right  to  open  cockpits  being 
annually  conceded  to  the  highest  bidder  by  the  various 
municipalities.  Raffles  and  lotteries  are  also  permitted 
by  law,  being  subject  to  taxation  by  the  municipalities, 
and  in  one  or  two  cities  there  are  municipal  lotteries. 

With  respect  to  morality  the  same  conditions  may  be 
said  to  prevail  in  Santo  Domingo  as  in  other  southern 
countries,  the  women  being  in  general  virtuous  and 
pure  and  the  men  inclined  to  amorous  intrigues.  The 
official  statistics  relating  to  marriages  and  births  show 
that  of  the  children  born  in  the  Republic  almost  sixty 
per  cent  are  illegitimate.  These  figures,  while  serious, 
are  rendered  less  alarming  than  would  appear  at  first 
sight  by  the  large  number  of  what  the  census-takers 


THE  PEOPLE  183 

term  "consensual  unions"  among  the  humbler  classes, 
or  cases  where  a  man  and  woman,  though  not  united  by 
marriage  ceremony,  live  together  publicly  as  man  and 
wife,  rear  a  family  and  are  as  faithful  to  each  other  as 
if  they  were  legitimately  married.  "Married  but  not 
parsoned"  is  the  way  in  which  such  unions  are  referred 
to  in  some  of  the  British  West  Indies.  The  consider- 
able number  of  these  unions  may  be  explained  by  the 
high  cost  of  the  marriage  ceremony, — for  while  there 
are  some  priests  ready  to  waive  their  fees  for  a  religious 
wedding  and  some  alcaldes  who  are  satisfied  with  what 
the  law  allows  for  the  civil  ceremony,  others  are  not  so 
complaisant — also  by  the  fact  that  such  unions  have 
become  so  common  that  the  parties  see  nothing  wrong 
in  them,  and  further  by  the  circumstance  that  the  par- 
ties often  believe  it  more  to  their  advantage  to  remain 
single  rather  than  to  be  married.  A  friend  of  mine  had 
a  respectable  colored  man  working  on  his  plantation, 
the  head  of  a  large  family,  but  not  married  to  the 
woman  with  whom  he  had  been  living  for  over  a  score 
of  years  and  to  whom  he  was  devotedly  attached.  My 
friend  endeavored  to  persuade  him  to  marry  the  woman, 
but  the  answer  was  a  determined  negative.  "If  I 
marry  her  she  will  know  I  have  to  support  her  and  she 
may  get  careless  and  lazy.  Knowing  that  I  can  leave 
her  when  I  like  she  will  continue  to  behave  herself." 
Persuasion  was  then  tried  with  his  wife  and  her  refusal 
was  almost  identical:  "If  I  marry  him  he  will  know 
that  I  am  bound  to  him  and  then  he  may  go  and  fall  in 
love  with  some  other  woman.  Knowing  that  I  can  leave 
him  when  I  like  he  will  continue  to  behave  himself." 

The  homes  of  the  poorer  people  are  mere  huts  gener- 
ally built  of  palmwood  and  covered  with  palm-thatch. 
The  houses  of  the  country  people  are  exactly  like  the 
"bohios"  used  by  the  Indians  at  the  time  of  the  con- 


1 84  SANTO  DOMINGO 

quest,  as  pictured  and  described  by  the  early  writers. 
In  the  towns  outside  of  the  capital  wooden  houses  are 
the  rule  and  some  of  the  wealthier  people  have  pretty 
chalets.  In  the  large  cities  there  is  a  good  deal  of 
" mamposteria "  construction:  brick  or  stone  work,  cov- 
ered with  cement.  In  the  capital  the  walls  of  a  majority 
of  the  houses  have  come  down  from  the  early  days  and 
are  of  great  solidity — here  a  man's  house  is  literally  his 
fortress.  The  barred  windows  of  the  olden  days  are 
here  still  to  be  seen.  One-story  structures  are  the  rule, 
and  there  are  few  if  any  of  more  than  two  stories.  The 
heat  of  the  climate  makes  window-glass  impracticable 
and  the  windows  and  doors  are  fitted  with  shutters 
which  permit  the  air  to  pass  through.  Except  in  the 
houses  of  the  wealthiest  persons  the  furniture  is  very 
simple  and  of  small  amount.  In  the  parlors  a  caneseat 
sofa,  several  rockers  and  chairs  and  a  small  table  with 
a  few  knicknacks  are  arranged  everywhere  in  the  same 
way.  The  bedsteads  are  of  iron  and  the  bedroom  furni- 
ture is  reduced  to  the  simplest  articles.  The  floors  are 
bare  except  for  a  few  rugs.  The  climate  is  responsible 
for  the  simplicity  of  the  furniture,  as  carpets  would 
breed  insects,  and  more  furniture  would  mean  endless 
cleaning  and  dusting,  since  everything  must  be  open 
all  day.  The  kitchens  are  not  furnished  with  iron 
stoves,  but  cooking  is  done  on  brick  hearths,  as  in  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico.  The  most  serious  drawback  about 
Dominican  houses  is  the  want  of  proper  bathing  facil- 
ities and  of  sanitary  closets,  due  to  lack  of  running  water 
in  most  cities.  The  most  attractive  feature  of  the 
houses  is  the  patio,  or  yard,  which  is  often  gay  with 
flowers,  though  not  so  assiduously  cared  for  as  in  some 
other  Spanish  countries.  In  similarity  to  other  tropical 
lands  home  life  is  not  nearly  so  intense  as  in  colder 
climates. 


CHAPTER  XII 

RELIGION 

Catholic  religion. — Concordat. — Ownership  of  church  buildings. — Clergy. — 
Religious  sentiment. — Shrines. — Religious  customs  and  holidays. — 
Religious  toleration. — Protestant  sects. 

The  Roman  Catholic  creed  has  been  the  dominant 
religion  of  Santo  Domingo  from  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest. When  Columbus  arrived  on  his  second  voyage 
he  brought  with  him  twelve  friars,  some  of  whom  were 
as  holy  men  as  their  leader,  the  vindictive  Father  Boil, 
was  a  nuisance.  Others  were  not  long  in  arriving  and 
soon  the  country  had  as  many  priests  in  proportion  as 
Spain  herself.  Large  estates  came  into  possession  of 
the  church,  and  in  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo  imposing 
churches  and  spacious  cloisters  were  erected,  which 
still  stand,  either  in  ruins  or  used  for  religious  or  secular 
purposes.  There  were  three  monasteries,  two  nunneries, 
and  some  ten  churches  and  chapels  in  the  capital. 

As  early  as  1511  bishops  were  appointed  for  Santo 
Domingo  and  Concepcion  de  la  Vega  and  in  1547  the 
first  archbishopric  in  the  new  world  was  established  in 
Santo  Domingo  City.  From  1516  to  1519  the  island 
was  governed  directly  by  three  friars,  and  the  licentiate 
Alonso  de  Fuenmayor,  who  governed  thirty  years  later, 
was  not  only  governor  and  captain-general  of  the  island, 
and  president  of  the  royal  audiencia,  but  archbishop  of 
Santo  Domingo  as  well.  The  Inquisition  was  estab- 
lished in  Santo  Domingo  in  1 564. 

With  the  decline  of  the  colony  the  number  of  church- 


1 86  SANTO  DOMINGO 

men  declined  also,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  majority  of  the  church  buildings  were  closed 
and  falling  to  ruin  and  the  church's  vast  country  estates 
were  abandoned.  The  revival  of  the  country  during 
the  eighteenth  century  affected  the  church  as  well,  but 
the  occupation  by  Haitians  and  French  during  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century  caused  its  influence  to 
wane,  and  restrictive  legislation  under  Haitian  dominion 
and  the  expulsion  of  the  archbishop  for  political  reasons 
in  1830,  severed  all  connection  with  Rome  for  many 
years.  The  first  archbishop  appointed  after  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Republic  was  consecrated  in  1848. 

The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  now  the  recognized 
state  religion.  In  1884  the  Dominican  government 
entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  Holy  See  according 
to  the  terms  of  which  the  archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo 
is  to  be  appointed  by  the  Pope  from  a  list  of  three 
names,  native  Dominicans  or  residents  of  the  Republic, 
submitted  by  the  Dominican  Congress,  which  in  turn 
engaged  to  pay  the  salary  of  the  archbishop  and  certain 
other  officials.  The  agreement  as  to  the  payments  in- 
cumbent upon  the  Dominican  government  had  the  same 
fate  as  other  financial  contracts:  it  was  observed  for  a 
short  time  and  then  disregarded,  so  that  for  years  only 
small  appropriations  have  been  made  for  church  pur- 
poses. 

In  the  year  1908  a  controversy  arose  with  reference 
to  the  ownership  of  the  buildings  and  lands  occupied  by 
the  church.  The  archbishop  and  church  officials 
claimed  that  such  buildings  belong  to  the  church  ab- 
solutely; while  the  government  officials  alleged  that 
they  are  the  property  of  the  state,  possessed  by  the 
church  with  the  state's  consent.  Previously  few  per- 
sons had  ever  given  a  thought  to  the  matter,  the  church 
having  as  many  buildings  as  it  could  properly  care  for, 


RELIGION  187 

and  more,  while  other  former  religious  edifices  were 
used  by  the  state.  Contributions  for  the  erection  and 
repair  of  churches  were  frequently  made  by  Dominican 
towns  without  exciting  discussion.  The  controversy  of 
1908  was  precipitated  by  the  determination  of  the 
church  authorities  to  erect  a  mausoleum  in  the  cathedral 
of  Santo  Domingo  City  for  the  remains  of  the  late 
Archbishop  Merino.  The  Executive  of  Santo  Domingo 
demanded  that  the  government's  permission  be  first 
obtained,  but  the  church  officials  refused  to  ask  for 
such  permission,  holding  it  unnecessary.  Neither  side 
lacked  historical  grounds  for  its  contention.  In  the  old 
colonial  days  church  and  state  were  united  and  the 
questions  of  ownership  of  the  church  buildings  never 
arose.  When  the  Haitians  assumed  control  in  1822 
they  considered  the  church  edifices  as  the  property  of 
the  state  alone  and  religious  services  continued  only  by 
sufferance  of  the  government.  Upon  the  establishment 
of  the  independence  of  Santo  Domingo,  the  new  gov- 
ernment, although  friendly  towards  the  Catholic 
Church,  took  a  similar  view  of  the  ownership  of  church 
edifices  and  property.  By  law  of  June  7,  1845,  of  the 
Dominican  Congress,  all  "censos"  and  other  perpetual 
rents  established  in  favor  of  the  church  were  declared 
extinguished  and  by  law  of  July  2,  1845,  all  property, 
real  and  personal,  formerly  belonging  to  convents  and 
orders  no  longer  in  being  in  the  country  was  formally 
proclaimed  to  pertain  to  the  state.  In  1853  burials  in 
churches  were  prohibited  by  law  of  Congress  as  being 
dangerous  to  the  public  health,  but  in  exceptional  cases 
the  Executive  granted  permission  therefor  on  the  pay- 
ment of  a  fee  which  of  late  years  has  been  #300.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  was  argued  that  the  church  has  been 
in  uninterrupted  possession  of  its  present  buildings  for 
centuries;  that  these  buildings  are  not  comprised  in  the 


1 88  SANTO  DOMINGO 

laws  of  1845;  that  a  law  of  1867  granting  the  gardens 
of  the  archbishop's  residence  to  the  municipality  of 
Santo  Domingo  for  the  establishment  of  a  market  and 
cockpit  was  repealed  in  1871  as  being  a  despoilment  of 
the  church  and  unconstitutional;  and  that  when  the 
mausoleum  of  Columbus  was  erected  in  the  cathedral 
the  committee  in  charge,  presided  over  by  the  vice- 
president  of  the  Republic,  applied  for  permission  to 
the  authorities  of  the  church.  The  dispute  regarding 
the  mausoleum  of  Archbishop  Merino  came  to  an  end 
when  the  government  receded  from  its  demand,  but 
the  main  question  is  not  regarded  as  settled. 

At  the  present  time  the  Republic  is  divided  into 
fifty-seven  parishes.  The  episcopal  head  is  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Santo  Domingo.  In  1903,  when  old  age  had 
enfeebled  Archbishop  Merino,  one  of  his  assistants, 
Monsignor  Adolfo  Nouel,  was  made  titular  Archbishop 
of  Metymne,  and  on  the  death  of  the  venerable  church- 
man in  1906  succeeded  him  as  Archbishop  of  Santo 
Domingo. 

In  the  olden  days  many  religious  orders  were  repre- 
sented in  the  island,  but  to-day  the  clergy  is  secular, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  friars  brought  over  in 
recent  years  from  Spain  and  France.  The  majority  of 
the  priests  are  native  Dominicans,  graduated  from  the 
seminary  in  the  capital.  There  are  in  the  clerical  body 
a  number  of  black  sheep,  far  too  fond  of  the  pleasures  of 
the  flesh.  Of  this  stamp  was  a  noted  prelate,  of  whom 
I  was  told  when  I  asked  whether  he  was  old :  "Yes,  quite 
old,  his  oldest  son  is  over  forty."  As  a  general  rule, 
however,  the  priests  of  Santo  Domingo  are  earnest, 
hardworking,  honorable  men.  The  standard  is  being 
raised  through  the  efforts  of  the  present  Archbishop 
Nouel. 

The  unfortunate  political  history  of  the  country  has 


RELIGION  189 

not  been  conducive  to  the  establishment  of  eleemosy- 
nary institutions  or  to  other  philanthropic  activity,  and 
such  work  has  devolved  almost  exclusively  upon  the 
priests.  The  names  of  many  of  these  are  held  in  grateful 
remembrance  for  their  efforts  in  behalf  of  charity.  Per- 
haps the  most  celebrated  was  Father  Billini,  who,  a 
member  of  one  of  the  foremost  families  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo, consecrated  his  life  to  helping  his  fellowmen.  He 
was  a  father  to  the  poor  and  through  his  efforts  the 
insane  asylum  of  Santo  Domingo,  an  orphan  asylum  and 
a  college  were  established.  His  name  became  notable  in 
other  directions  also,  for  he  was  instrumental  in  the 
discovery  of  the  remains  of  Columbus  in  the  Santo 
Domingo  cathedral  in  1877.  At  times  the  methods  of 
the  good  father  were  a  little  spectacular:  thus  on  one 
occasion  when  supplicating  Heureaux  in  behalf  of 
several  prisoners  sentenced  to  death,  he  took  off  his 
hat  and  vowed  he  would  not  put  it  on  again  until  the 
prisoners  were  pardoned,  but  the  order  of  execution  was 
carried  out  and  ever  afterwards  Father  Billini  went 
hatless.  In  so  great  esteem  is  his  name  held  that  the 
only  statue  in  Santo  Domingo  City,  besides  that  of 
Columbus  on  the  plaza,  is  erected  to  his  memory. 

Practically  the  entire  population  of  the  country  is  at 
least  nominally  Roman  Catholic.  Among  the  edu- 
cated classes  in  the  cities  the  women,  as  a  rule,  are 
devout;  the  men  either  openly  acknowledge  themselves 
free  thinkers  or  their  religion  is  very  superficial  indeed. 
On  one  occasion  a  Dominican  earnestly  assured  me  he 
was  a  Catholic  and  would  always  remain  one,  "but,"  he 
added,  "I  cannot  accept  all  the  doctrines  of  the  church: 
thus  I  do  not  believe  in  the  Virgin  Mary,  nor  the  saints, 
nor  the  power  of  the  priests  to  forgive  sins,  nor  in  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  but  I  feel  almost  certain  of  the 
existence  of  a  God."  The  fondness  for  display  makes 


190  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  ornate  ceremonies  of  the  Catholic  Church  popular 
with  all,  however,  and  they  are  observed  by  officers  of 
the  state  whenever  possible.  The  president  always 
goes  to  mass  after  taking  the  oath  of  office,  and  the 
army  flags  are  solemnly  blessed. 

The  less  educated  people  of  the  cities  and  most  of  the 
country  people  not  only  hold  their  priests  in  great  re- 
spect, but  are  blindly  superstitious.  It  is  common  to 
find  crosses  in  the  courtyards  of  country  houses,  placed 
there  to  keep  evil  spirits  away.  Frequently  also,  three 
crosses  are  seen  in  conspicuous  places  near  the  roadside 
or  even  in  the  middle  of  the  road.  They  are  supposed 
to  propitiate  the  Almighty,  and  pious  persons  mumble 
prayers  as  they  pass  them.  When  the  destruction 
wrought  by  the  Martinique  volcano  became  known 
here,  the  dismay  of  the  countrymen  was  responsible 
for  more  than  one  "calvario"  (calvary),  as  these  col- 
lections of  crosses  are  called.  It  is  especially  desired 
by  the  country  people  to  receive  the  last  sacraments 
from  the  priests  before  death.  On  one  occasion  far 
out  in  the  country  I  met  a  crowd  of  people  engaged  in 
transporting  a  dying  man  many  miles  to  the  priest  in 
the  nearest  town.  When  asked  why  the  priest  was  not 
called  to  the  sick  man,  they  explained  innocently:  "He 
couldn't  come.  The  priest  is  too  fat." 

There  are  in  the  territory  of  the  Republic  several 
shrines  of  more  than  usual  renown,  which  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  attract  crowds  of  worshipers,  some 
coming  all  the  way  from  Porto  Rico.  Wonderful  cures 
of  invalids  are  registered  which  recall  the  miracles  of 
Lourdes.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  churches  is  the 
one  on  the  Santo  Cerro,  the  Holy  Hill,  built  on  the 
exact  spot  where  forces  of  Columbus  planted  their 
cross  when  defending  the  hill  against  the  Indians. 
After  the  Indians  had  stormed  the  place  all  their  efforts 


RELIGION  191 

to  destroy  the  cross  were  unavailing,  so  the  story  goes, 
and  they  were  finally  driven  to  precipitate  flight  by 
the  apparition  of  the  Virgin,  sitting  on  the  cross.  A 
church  was  founded  on  the  spot  and  a  convent  near 
by.  During  the  dark  years  of  the  colony  the  convent 
was  abandoned  and  fell  to  ruin  but  at  no  time  was 
a  priest  lacking  to  look  after  the  site  of  the  miracle. 
In  the  time  of  Heureaux  the  humble  wooden  chapel 
then  crowning  the  hill  was  replaced  by  a  larger  but 
modest  brick  church,  the  greater  part  of  the  bricks 
being  carried  up  from  the  ruins  of  the  old  city  of  La 
Vega  which  lie  at  the  foot  of  the  hill.  The  church  oc- 
cupies an  eminence  overlooking  the  great  Royal  Plain. 
Its  most  prized  treasure,  which  is  reverently  kissed  by 
the  priest  before  he  shows  it  to  the  stranger,  consists  of 
two  splinters  about  an  inch  long,  of  black  wood,  parts  of 
the  original  cross  of  Columbus,  enclosed  in  another 
small  cross  of  gold  filigree  work.  A  larger  piece  of  the 
original  cross  is  kept  in  the  cathedral  at  Santo  Domingo 
City,  to  be  exhibited  on  special  occasions.  The  pieces  of 
the  original  cross  carried  away  by  the  Spaniards  were 
enough  to  make  a  score  of  crosses,  yet  nevertheless  there 
was  always  some  wood  left,  which  circumstance  was 
heralded  as  an  additional  miracle. 

Within  the  church  on  the  Holy  Hill,  in  one  of  the 
chapels,  there  is  a  hole  in  the  stone  floor  a  little  over 
two  feet  square  and  deep,  which  is  pointed  out  as  the 
exact  place  where  the  cross  of  Columbus  stood.  There  is 
nothing  so  coveted  by  pilgrims  as  to  be  able  to  kneel  in 
this  hole  and  offer  up  their  prayers.  The  soil  from  this 
spot  is  credited  with  strange  powers,  such  as  that  of 
healing  wounds  on  which  it  is  laid,  and  that  of  causing 
floods  to  subside,  when  sprinkled  on  the  troubled  waters. 
The  late  Archbishop  Merino  assured  me  that  the  mirac- 
ulous nature  of  the  spot  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that 


192  SANTO  DOMINGO 

however  much  soil  is  taken  out  of  the  hole,  the  bottom 
thereof  always  retains  the  same  level,  but  my  later 
inspection  of  the  dry  yellow  earth  at  the  bottom  dis- 
closed nothing  unusual.  Near  the  Santo  Cerro  church 
is  the  trunk  of  the  nispero  tree,  gnarled  with  age,  from 
which  Columbus  is  said  to  have  cut  the  wood  for  his 
cross.  All  around  are  miserable  shacks,  inhabited,  so 
the  pure-minded  priest  of  the  church  sorrowfully  told 
me,  by  people  the  conduct  of  many  of  whom  is  quite 
at  variance  with  the  holiness  supposed  to  pervade  the 
place. 

The  town  of  Bayaguana,  to  the  northeast  of  Santo 
Domingo  City,  also  attracts  the  faithful,  especially 
about  the  first  of  the  year,  by  reason  of  the  fame  of  the 
"Cristo  de  Bayaguana,"  a  very  ancient  figure  of  Christ 
in  the  church  of  that  town.  In  the  same  way  Higuey 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  island  is  specially  noted  for 
its  shrine  of  the  "Altagracia,"  a  picture  of  the  Virgin, 
of  which  tradition  says  that  in  the  early  days  of  the 
colony  it  was  given  by  an  aged  mysterious  stranger  to 
the  father  of  a  devout  maiden  who  had  pined  therefor. 
The  church  is  built  on  the  site  of  an  orange  tree  under 
which,  it  is  said,  the  picture  was  first  admired  by  the 
girl  and  her  relatives;  the  trunk  of  this  tree  is  shown 
behind  the  altar  of  the  church.  Pilgrimages  to  this 
place  take  place  preferably  about  the  twenty-first  of 
January  and  the  miracles  ascribed  to  the  Virgin  are 
astounding.  Miracles  of  quite  a  different  nature  are 
attributed  to  an  image  of  Saint  Andrew,  in  the  capital. 
The  populace  confidently  believe  that  as  sure  as  this 
figure  is  carried  to  the  street  an  earthquake  will 
follow. 

There  are  always  several  altars  in  the  churches,  sur- 
mounted by  figures  of  the  saints  to  whom  they  are 
dedicated.  Some  of  these  statues  are  quite  beautiful, 


RELIGION  193 

others,  in  some  of  the  poorer  churches,  are  hideous. 
As  in  other  Spanish  countries  the  churches  are  bare  of 
seats,  and  people  who  attend  either  send  small  chairs 
before  the  service,  or  stand.  It  is  not  unusual  to  see 
well  dressed  ladies  carrying  their  chairs  to  church. 
Women  are  much  more  in  evidence  than  men,  and  the 
Dominican  woman  is  not  different  from  her  sisters  in 
other  countries,  for  a  new  hat  or  dress  is  apt  to  awaken 
in  her  an  irresistible  yearning  to  go  to  church.  Young 
men  are  fond  of  attending,  too,  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
in  many  cases  their  object  is  to  see  the  young  ladies 
rather  than  to  hear  the  sermon. 

The  custom  of  celebrating  the  saint's  day  instead  of 
the  birthday  is  followed,  so  that  birthdays  pass  un- 
perceived  while  the  day  dedicated  in  the  calendar  of 
the  Catholic  Church  to  the  saint  whose  name  a  person 
bears,  is  the  day  which  he  celebrates  and  on  which  he 
receives  the  felicitations  of  his  friends. 

Christmas  tide  is  not  a  time  when  presents  are  ex- 
changed, and  Christmas  trees  are  not  found,  save 
rarely  and  where  the  foreign  influence  is  strong.  There 
is  no  lack  of  celebration,  however.  On  Christmas  Eve 
the  churches  are  crowded  and  there  are  banquets  and 
dances  going  on  everywhere.  In  the  cities  the  small 
boys  amuse  themselves  by  setting  off  fireworks.  During 
the  Christmas  week  dances  are  frequent,  and  in  the 
country  they  continue  sometimes  for  days  to  the 
lugubrious  accompaniment  of  accordions  and  large 
drums.  December  the  twenty-eighth,  Holy  Innocents' 
day,  is  All  Fools'  day,  instead  of  April  the  first,  it  being 
argued  that  just  as  the  innocents  of  Herod's  day  were 
made  to  suffer,  so  the  innocents  of  this  age  should  be 
persecuted.  Many  are  the  pranks  perpetrated  and  the 
small  boy  is  in  his  glory.  On  New  Year's  Eve  many 
families  receive  their  friends;  there  is  generally  some 


194  SANTO  DOMINGO 

large  ball,  and  the  new  year  is  usheied  in  with  fireworks 
and  other  noises. 

The  great  day  of  the  year  for  the  children  is  the  sixth 
of  January,  the  feast  of  Epiphany,  or  Three  Kings'  Day, 
as  it  is  called  in  Santo  Domingo.  Just  as  the  three  wise 
men  from  the  East  brought  presents  to  the  infant  Christ 
in  ages  past,  so  they  now  make  the  rounds  and  leave 
presents  for  deserving  children,  thus  taking  the  place 
of  our  Santa  Claus.  The  receptacles  they  choose  for  the 
good  things  they  deliver  are  either  the  children's  slippers 
or  shoes,  or  boxes  made  ready  by  the  little  ones.  For 
weeks  before  the  anxiously  awaited  day,  letters  are 
written  to  the  Kings,  explaining  what  gifts  would  be 
acceptable,  and  are  given  to  the  parents  who  undertake 
to  deliver  them.  The  children  are  careful  to  facilitate 
the  display  of  the  Kings'  generosity  by  placing  their 
shoes  or  boxes  in  conspicuous  places  and  filling  the  boxes 
with  grass,  so  that  the  horses  of  the  Kings  can  eat. 
Their  thoughtfulness  is  rewarded,  for  on  the  following 
morning  the  visit  of  the  Kings  is  attested  by  indubitable 
evidence,  as  there  is  an  abundance  of  toys  and  sweets 
and  the  grass  is  often  quite  strewn  about.  Excited 
little  ones  are  sure  they  heard  the  pawing  of  the  horses 
on  the  balcony.  The  Kings  usually  show  a  magnani- 
mous disregard  of  past  offenses,  but  occasionally  they 
leave  a  letter  of  advice  or  warning,  and  they  have  even 
been  known  to  place  a  switch  in  the  box  of  a  par- 
ticularly bad  boy. 

Easter  is  celebrated  with  great  solemnity.  In  order  to 
provide  opportunity  for  observing  all  the  ceremonies 
prescribed  by  the  church,  they  are  so  arranged  that  the 
ceremonies  corresponding  to  the  commemoration  of  the 
death  of  Christ  are  begun  on  Thursday  at  noon  and  the 
celebration  of  the  resurrection  on  Saturday  at  noon, 
and  this  is  the  order  of  dates  accepted  by  the  people 


RELIGION  195 

in  general.  On  Thursday  and  Friday  soldiers  form  a 
guard  of  honor  before  the  churches,  and  up  to  Easter  of 
1906  there  was  a  strict  prohibition  of  any  vehicle  going 
through  the  streets  between  Thursday  noon  and  Satur- 
day noon.  Not  a  wheel  was  permitted  to  turn  in  this 
period,  giving  rise  to  much  inconvenience  and  dis- 
comfort. Since  1906  a  more  liberal  view  has  prevailed. 
At  this  time  as  on  certain  other  church  festivals,  solemn 
religious  processions  wind  through  the  streets. 

The  church  has  charge  of  several  small  hospitals  and 
orphan  asylums.  A  few  schools  in  the  Republic  are  also 
under  its  auspices,  but  in  general  religious  education  is 
much  neglected. 

Although  the  Catholic  religion  is  the  state  religion 
and  is  professed  by  so  large  a  majority  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  influence  of  the  church  in  the  government  is 
no  more  than  in  many  countries  where  no  such  cir- 
cumstances prevail.  Discipline  in  the  priesthood  is 
limited  almost  entirely  to  ecclesiastical  matters  and 
priests  otherwise  speak  and  act  for  themselves.  They 
frequently  participate  in  politics  and  are  often  to  be 
met  in  municipal  councils  and  in  Congress,  and  in  such 
cases  their  acts  indicate  that  they  sit,  not  as  priests 
representing  the  church,  but  entirely  as  individuals 
representing  the  constituency  from  which  they  were 
elected.  Father  Merino,  who  later  became  archbishop, 
was  elected  president  and  served  out  his  term.  Pres- 
ident Morales  had  been  a  priest,  but  had  abandoned  the 
priesthood  when  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  The 
present  head  of  the  church,  Archbishop  Nouel,  has  also 
been  president,  under  a  temporary  compromise. 

Another  peculiarity  of  Dominican  Catholicism  is  its 
tolerant  attitude  towards  freemasonry.  It  is  not  un- 
usual for  persons  who  are  recognized  as  fervent  Cath- 
olics to  be  at  the  same  time  enthusiastic  masons.  There 


196  SANTO  DOMINGO 

are  instances  even  of  devout  families,  where  one  of  the 
sons  belongs  to  the  priesthood  and  the  other  sons  and 
the  father  are  zealous  masons,  but  where  all  live  under 
the  same  roof  in  absolute  concord.  The  first  lodges  were 
founded  in  1858  and  there  are  lodges  to  be  found  to-day 
in  all  the  principal  cities.  Several  of  them  have  their 
own  buildings,  that  at  Santiago  being  especially  worthy 
of  remark.  They  have  done  excellent  work  in  behalf  of 
charity  and  education.  The  lodges  of  Santo  Domingo 
City,  Santiago,  La  Vega  and  Moca  maintain  free  public 
schools,  and  the  lodge  of  Puerto  Plata  a  hospital.  The 
lodges  of  oddfellows  in  the  Republic  have  done  similar 
good  work. 

The  absence  of  religious  fanaticism  is  further  ex- 
emplified by  the  tolerance  accorded  other  religious  sects. 
These,  it  is  true,  are  but  slimly  represented.  Of  the 
Jewish  faith  there  are  probably  not  two  dozen  persons  in 
the  Republic.  The  Protestants  are  almost  entirely 
negroes  from  the  British  and  former  Danish  islands  and 
other  foreigners,  and  descendants  of  the  American 
negroes  settled  in  Santo  Domingo.  For  these  the 
Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  of  England  maintains  a 
flourishing  mission  with  chapels  in  Puerto  Plata, 
Samana,  and  Sanchez  and  a  small  branch  in  Santo 
Domingo  City.  The  principal  chapel  is  in  Puerto 
Plata,  which  is  also  the  residence  of  the  minister  in 
charge  of  the  mission.  The  African  Methodist  Church 
also  has  small  stations  at  Samana  and  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris,  though  the  word  "African"  does  not  tend  to 
make  the  church  popular  in  Santo  Domingo.  There  is 
further  an  almost  abandoned  Baptist  mission  in  Puerto 
Plata  and  Monte  Cristi.  In  all  these  churches,  services 
are  generally  carried  on  in  the  English  language  alone. 
In  San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  Protestant  services  are 
conducted  in  Spanish  by  devotees  who  do  not  seem  to  be 
ordained  by  any  particular  sect. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

EDUCATION    AND    LITERATURE 

Education  in  Spanish  times. — Work  of  Hostos. — School  organization. — 
Professional  institute. — Primary  and  secondary  education. — Literacy. — 
Libraries. — Newspapers. — Literature. — Fine  Arts. 

As  in  other  Spanish  colonies,  it  was  not  the  policy  of 
the  Spanish  government  in  Santo  Domingo  to  foster 
popular  education.  Learning  was  confined  to  the  clergy 
and  the  aristocracy  and  was  imparted  only  by  servants 
of  the  church.  As  early  as  1538,  the  Dominican  friars 
obtained  a  papal  bull  for  the  establishment  of  a  uni- 
versity, and  in  1558  the  institution  known  as  the 
University  of  St.  Thomas  of  Aquino  was  inaugurated 
by  them  in  Santo  Domingo  City,  with  faculties  of 
medicine,  philosophy,  theology  and  law,  the  principal 
branch  being  theology.  This  university  acquired  con- 
siderable celebrity,  but  practically  disappeared  during 
the  colony's  decline,  being  revived  by  royal  decree  of 
May  26,  1747,  which  gave  it  the  title  of  Royal  and 
Pontifical  University  of  Santo  Domingo.  The  cession 
of  the  island  to  France  and  the  wars  which  followed 
weakened  the  famous  institution,  which  was  definitely 
closed  by  the  Haitians  when  they  assumed  control  of 
the  government.  The  Haitian  occupation  and  the  civil 
disorders  of  the  first  forty  years  of  the  Republic  were 
not  propitious  for  the  spreading  of  education.  Beyond  a 
theological  seminary  founded  in  1848,  there  were  only 
a  few  humble  public  and  private  schools,  leading  a 
precarious  existence. 


198  SANTO  DOMINGO 

An  eminent  Porto  Rican  educator,  Eugenio  M.  de 
Hostos,  was  responsible  for  the  intellectual  renaissance 
of  Santo  Domingo.  This  remarkable  man  was  one  of 
those  talented  dreamers  produced  by  Latin-America,  a 
lover  of  the  abstract  ideal  in  government,  philosophy 
and  pedagogy,  erudite,  eloquent,  with  an  enthusiasm 
which  fired  his  pupils  and  hearers.  Early  in  life  he 
conceived  the  idea  which  he  preached  unceasingly:  that 
of  a  Confederated  West  Indian  Republic,  in  which  the 
principal  states  were  to  be  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo  and 
Porto  Rico.  Inspired  by  the  Cuban  war  of  independ- 
ence of  1868  to  1878,  he  wrote  and  spoke  throughout 
Spanish  America  in  behalf  of  the  union  of  the  Spanish  • 
speaking  peoples  of  the  West  Indies,  the  first  step  to 
that  end  to  be  the  independence  of  Cuba.  In  1880  he 
arrived  for  the  third  time  in  Santo  Domingo,  where  he 
was  then  less  known  than  in  South  America.  Having 
obtained  from  the  government  a  commission  to  found 
normal  schools  in  the  Republic,  he  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  the  normal  school  of  Santo  Domingo  City. 
He  came  as  the  right  man  at  the  right  time.  His  teach- 
ings touched  a  responsive  chord  in  the  hearts  of  the 
Dominicans;  his  unsparing  condemnation  of  old  ped- 
agogical methods  and  eager  advocacy  of  new  ones  gave 
rise  to  discussions  which  awakened  a  general  interest  in 
education  and  letters;  and  his  aggressive  enthusiasm 
smote  the  rock  which  held  Dominican  literature  bound. 
A  prominent  Dominican  historian,  Americo  Lugo, 
says:  "I  believe  that  what  may  be  called  national 
literature  does  not  begin  until  after  the  arrival  in  the 
Republic  of  the  eminent  educator  Eugenio  M.  de 
Hostos." 

Hostos  labored  in  Santo  Domingo  for  eight  years, 
during  which  time  he  had  as  pupils  many  who  have 
since  become  prominent  in  the  councils  of  the  Republic. 


EDUCATION  AND  LITERATURE  199 

The  baneful  policies  of  Heureaux  forced  his  departure, 
and  he  settled  in  Chile  with  his  family,  being  appointed 
professor  of  constitutional  law  at  the  National  Univer- 
sity. Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  Spanish-American 
war,  when  it  became  apparent  that  Porto  Rico  would 
be  American  and  his  ideal  of  an  Antillan  Confederation 
definitely  shattered,  he  journeyed  to  Washington  to 
labor  in  behalf  of  Porto  Rico,  returning  later  to  his 
native  island  in  the  hope  of  uniting  the  Porto  Ricans 
in  a  demand  for  autonomy.  There  political  passion  ran 
high,  and  Hostos,  disappointed,  went  back  to  Santo 
Domingo,  where  his  entry  was  almost  triumphal.  He 
again  assumed  charge  of  public  education  though  the 
civil  disorders  filled  him  with  sadness.  In  1903  he 
died  in  Santo  Domingo,  but  the  seed  he  sowed  lives 
and  flourishes  and  his  memory  is  revered  by  Domin- 
icans. 

In  1884  a  general  school  law  was  passed,  repeatedly 
modified  since,  according  to  which  primary  instruction 
is  a  charge  upon  the  municipality,  while  the  cost  of 
secondary  instruction  is  to  be  defrayed  by  the  state. 
Supreme  inspection  over  educational  matters  was  given 
to  the  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  who 
was  assisted  by  a  superior  board  of  education  with 
school  inspectors  in  the  various  provinces.  There  were 
further  special  boards  of  education  in  each  province, 
presided  over  by  the  governor,  and  school  boards  in 
the  communes  which  are  not  capitals  of  provinces  and 
in  the  cantons.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  com- 
petent personnel,  the  inspection  of  the  educational  in- 
stitutions has  generally  been  perfunctory  and  the 
teachers  have  done  pretty  much  as  they  pleased.  Un- 
fortunately the  financial  limitations  of  the  country  have 
not  permitted  the  development  of  the  schools  in  the 
measure  desired.  Since  the  middle  of  1917  numerous 


200  SANTO  DOMINGO 

changes  in  the  school  system  and  curriculum  have  been 
decreed  by  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction  and 
the  system  is  undergoing  a  general  reorganization. 

In  1882  a  "Professional  Institute"  was  founded,  the 
name  of  which  was  in  1914  changed  to  "University  of 
Santo  Domingo,"  and  it  is  now  called  the  Central  Uni- 
versity of  Santo  Domingo.  It  occupies  the  same  build- 
ing in  the  capital,  adjoining  the  church  of  St.  Dominic, 
where  the  old  university  was  located.  It  confers  de- 
grees in  five  branches:  law,  medicine,  pharmacy,  dental 
surgery  and  mathematics  and  surveying.  Practically 
all  the  lawyers  of  the  Republic  have  graduated  from 
this  school.  Most  of  the  native  pharmacists,  also,  have 
studied  here.  With  reference  to  instruction  in  medicine 
and  surgery,  and  in  dentistry,  the  institution  is  handi- 
capped by  the  lack  of  a  suitable  hospital  and  clinic. 
As  a  result  those  who  wish  to  adopt  any  of  these  pro- 
fessions pursue  their  studies  abroad,  if  possible,  and 
all  the  best  known  physicians  are  graduates  of  foreign 
universities.  The  entire  annual  appropriation  for  the 
University  is  only  about  $24,000.  A  similar  institution, 
on  a  smaller  scale,  is  the  Professional  Institute  of  San- 
tiago, founded  in  1916.  In  several  cities  there  are  high 
schools  .  called  normal  schools,  and  other  institutions 
called  superior  schools,  and  the  capital  has  an  academy 
of  drawing,  painting  and  sculpture. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  private  schools,  primary 
education  is  in  the  hands  of  the  municipalities,  which 
are  assisted  by  small  subventions  from  the  national 
government.  In  the  municipalities  there  is  more  en- 
thusiasm for  education  than  in  Congress,  if  we  judge 
from  the  figures  presented  by  the  budgets.  Every  little 
town  takes  pride  in  making  its  budget  for  education  as 
large  as  possible,  year  after  year.  The  total  amount 
spent  for  educational  purposes,  however,  including  sal- 


EDUCATION  AND  LITERATURE  2OI 

aries,  rent,  supplies,  subventions  and  teachers'  pensions, 
is  only  in  the  neighborhood  of  $500,000,  contributed 
about  in  equal  shares  by  the  state  and  the  municipal- 
ities. 

The  total  number  of  scholars  enrolled  is  only  about 
20,000.  The  schools  are  generally  located  in  rented 
houses,  there  being  no  buildings  erected  expressly  for 
school  purposes.  Their  equipment  is  as  a  rule  deficient. 
The  teaching  force  is  handicapped  by  lack  of  facilities 
and  training.  The  salaries  of  the  elementary  teachers 
are  very  small,  and  while  some  municipalities  are 
prompt  in  their  payments,  others  lag  far  behind,  and 
the  Spanish  saying  "as  hungry  as  a  schoolmaster"  has 
not  lost  all  its  meaning. 

If  the  amounts  expended  for  education  are  not  large, 
it  is  due  to  lack  of  money  and  not  to  lack  of  realization 
of  the  advantages  of  learning.  The  interest  manifested 
in  education  and  the  eagerness  of  parents  to  furnish 
their  children  as  much  schooling  as  possible,  are  among 
the  most  hopeful  signs  for  the  future.  In  the  towns  and 
villages  where  the  schools  are  located,  most  children 
learn  at  least  to  read  and  write,  but  out  in  the  country 
illiteracy  and  ignorance  reign  supreme.  In  the  absence 
of  statistics  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  propor- 
tion of  illiterates;  there  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  it  is 
very  large,  and  I  have  heard  it  estimated  at  all  the  way 
from  seventy  to  ninety  per  cent  of  the  population  over 
ten  years  of  age. 

Some  of  the  best  schools  are  private  institutions,  one 
of  the  best  known  being  the  institute  for  girls  and  young 
ladies,  founded  by  Santo  Domingo's  foremost  woman 
poet,  Salome  Urena  de  Henriquez.  It  is  the  custom 
also  for  well-to-do  families  to  send  their  children  abroad 
for  study  and  to  travel  themselves,  and  the  Dominicans 
are  not  few  who,  besides  their  native  Spanish,  speak 


202  SANTO  DOMINGO 

other  languages,  acquired  abroad.  Within  the  country, 
too,  there  is  a  predilection  among  the  upper  class  for 
the  study  of  foreign  tongues,  and  many  learn  English 
and  French  in  the  family  circle  or  by  association  with 
persons  speaking  these  languages. 

As  a  result  of  the  educational  limitations,  the  popu- 
lation of  the  country  may  be  divided  into  three  groups : 
first,  a  number  of  persons,  small  in  comparison  with  the 
whole  number  of  inhabitants,  who  compare  in  culture, 
education  and  accomplishments  with  members  of  the 
best  society  in  any  country;  second,  a  much  larger 
group  of  persons  who  .possess  knowledge  more  or  less 
rudimentary;  and  third,  the  great  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants, who  are  unlettered  and  unlearned. 

One  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  information  is  the  lack 
of  public  libraries.  There  is  a  public  library  in  Puerto 
Plata,  and  various  clubs  in  the  larger  towns  have  li- 
braries, for  their  members  or  the  public,  but  they  are 
all  very  small  and  limited.  The  newspapers,  therefore, 
furnish  the  only  source  of  reading  for  the  majority. 
Practically  all  the  papers  are  published  in  the  cities  of 
Santo  Domingo,  Santiago  and  Puerto  Plata,  and  all 
are  of  modest  dimensions.  Many  newspapers  have  been 
founded  in  the  Republic  and  after  leading  an  ephemeral 
existence  have  succumbed,  some  because  their  editors 
were  persuaded  by  threats  or  rewards  on  the  part  of 
the  government  to  cease  publication,  and  the  greater 
portion  because  of  financial  embarrassment.  Notwith- 
standing the  constitutional  precept  guaranteeing  free 
speech,  editors  of  the  opposition  have  generally  found 
it  more  healthy  to  withdraw  to  the  neighboring  coun- 
tries and  conduct  their  campaigns  at  long  range.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  must  be  said  that  several  govern- 
ments have  honestly  endeavored  to  allow  the  press  full 
liberty,  but  that  the  privilege  has  always  been  abused. 


EDUCATION  AND  LITERATURE  203 

The  principal  daily  newspaper  of  the  Republic,  and 
the  one  having  the  largest  circulation  is  the  "Listin 
Diario"  of  Santo  Domingo.  It  is  a  four-page  sheet  and 
its  daily  edition  is  about  10,000  copies.  It  is  the  only 
paper  having  a  cable  service,  and  it  receives  its  cable- 
grams from  the  French  cable  company,  whose  line 
crosses  the  island.  It  is  also  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
existing  newspapers,  having  been  founded  in  1889,  and 
maintained  itself  by  constantly  observing  a  prudent 
attitude.  In  the  capital  there  also  appear  the  "Gaceta 
Oficial,"  in  which  the  laws  and  governmental  decisions 
and  announcements  are  published;  the  "Boletin  Muni- 
cipal," containing  municipal  announcements;  several 
reviews  whose  character  is  indicated  by  their  title: 
"Revista  Medica,"  "Revista  de  Agricultura,"  "Re- 
vista  Judicial,"  "Boletin  Masonico";  two  small  humor- 
ous papers;  two  commercial  sheets;  an  illustrated  paper, 
"Blanco  y  Negro,"  and  a  well-known  literary  monthly, 
"Cuna  de  America"  (Cradle  of  America).  Santiago 
also  boasts  a  daily  paper,  "El  Diario,"  as  also  several 
smaller  papers  and  literary  periodicals.  In  Puerto 
Plata  "El  Porvenir,"  the  oldest  of  existing  Dominican 
newspapers,  is  published,  as  well  as  three  less  important 
sheets. 

Especially  interesting  among  these  publications  are 
the  "Cuna  de  America"  and  others  devoted  to  belles- 
lettres.  They  constitute  a  reflection  of  current  Domin- 
ican literature,  being  given  over  to  poems,  lyric  com- 
positions, biographic,  historical,  philosophic  and  other 
articles,  and  extracts  from  new  plays  and  books.  In 
these  periodicals  most  of  the  poems  which  have  brought 
fame  to  Santo  Domingo  have  appeared. 

Before  the  intellectual  awakening  incident  to  the 
labors  of  Hostos  the  number  of  Dominican  writers  was 
small.  Little  was  done  in  colonial  times.  In  the 


204  SANTO  DOMINGO 

turbulent  period  following  the  cessation  of  Spanish 
sovereignty  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  situation  of  the  country  was  not  favorable  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  muses,  but  scions  of  the  families  who 
then  emigrated  have  made  their  names  immortal  in  the 
literature  of  Cuba  and  other  neighboring  countries. 
Juan  Pablo  Duarte,  the  liberator,  Antonio  Delmonte  y 
Tejada,  the  historian,  and  a  small  group  of  others  who 
flourished  shortly  before  or  at  the  time  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Republic,  may  be  said  to  initiate  the  litera- 
ture of  the  country,  but  their  fame  is  mostly  local. 
The  first  generation  of  Dominican  citizens  furnished  a 
somewhat  larger  proportion  of  literary  men,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  the  venerable  Emiliano 
Tejera,  the  late  Archbishop  Fernando  A.  de  Merino, 
Francisco  X.  Amiama,  Francisco  Gregorio  Billini, 
Mariano  A.  Cestero,  the  historian  Jose  G.  Garcia  and 
the  novelist  Manuel  de  J.  Galvan,  though  it  is  signif- 
icant that  the  best  productions  of  some  of  these  ap- 
peared after  1880.  It  is  since  that  year  that  literature 
has  really  flourished.  So  fecund  have  Dominican 
writers  been,  and  so  excellent  their  productions,  that 
Santo  Domingo  occupies  a  proud  place  in  the  beautiful 
field  of  Latin-American  literature,  where  only  a  few 
years  ago  it  was  practically  unknown.  There  is  an 
abundance  of  poets,  essayists,  historians  and  novelists 
worthy  of  mention,  and  an  attempt  to  single  out  a  few 
might  lead  to  unjust  distinctions.  A  number  of  the  best 
writers  are  women,  and  all  prominent  newspaper  men 
are  also  distinguished  in  literature. 

In  poetry,  especially  lyric  poetry,  the  Dominican 
writers  excel.  They  show  great  depth  of  feeling  and  a 
full  command  of  the  sonorous  Castilian  tongue.  A 
favorite  theme  is,  of  course,  the  old  story  which  is  ever 
new.  The  civil  wars  have  inspired  many  pathetic 


EDUCATION  AND  LITERATURE  205 

compositions,  and  poems  like  Salome  Urena's  apos- 
trophe to  the  ruins  of  colonial  times,  Bienvenido  S. 
Nouel's  elegy  on  the  ruins  left  by  the  late  revolutions, 
and  Enrique  Henriquez'  "Miserere!",  gems  of  verse,  are 
veritable  cries  of  anguish  at  the  desolation  wrought  by 
fratricidal  strife.  Perhaps  it  is  the  poets'  sorrow  at  the 
misfortunes  of  their  country  which  is  the  cause  of  the 
note  of  sadness  so  often  to  be  remarked  in  Dominican 
writings.  Some  writers  are  classed  as  poets  though 
they  have  versified  little  or  not  at  all;  of  these  Tulio  M. 
Cestero,  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  younger  writers, 
is  an  example,  it  being  said  of  him  that  "he  writes  his 
poetry  in  prose." 

The  love  of  poetry  is  by  no  means  confined  to  persons 
of  higher  education,  but  is  general  throughout  the 
country.  It  has  been  said  that  if  there  were  one  engineer 
in  Santo  Domingo  for  every  hundred  poets,  there  would 
be  fewer  mudholes  in  the  roads.  The  productions  of 
some  poetasters  are  characterized  by  an  abundance  of 
rare  adjectives,  which  are  introduced  as  well  to  give  an 
impression  of  depth  of  thought  as  to  advertise  the 
author's  erudition.  However,  there  are  so  many  good 
poets  that  forgiveness  is  readily  extended  to  the  others. 

The  national  song  of  Santo  Domingo,  an  ode  to 
liberty,  was  written  by  a  school  teacher,  Emilio  Prud'- 
homme.  The  music  was  composed  by  Jose  Reyes,  who 
died  several  years  ago,  and  is  agreeable  and  almost 
majestic.  Reyes  occupies  probably  the  most  prominent 
place  among  Dominican  composers.  Others  have  also 
obtained  prominence,  and  their  number  is  constantly 
increasing;  among  them  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  Jose  de  J.  Ravelo,  one  of  the  younger  men  whose 
work  has  attracted  attention  and  gives  promise  of  even 
better  things. 

In  painting  and  sculpture  several  Dominicans  have 


206  SANTO  DOMINGO 

attained  prominence  of  late  years.  The  principal  artists 
are  Arturo  Grullon,  a  prominent  oculist;  Luis  Desangles; 
and  Miss  Adriana  Billini,  whose  paintings  have  received 
prizes  in  Paris,  Porto  Rico  and  Havana  respectively. 
Desangles  painted  the  picture  "Caonabo,"  which  hangs 
in  the  session  hall  of  the  City  Council  of  Puerto  Plata 
and  shows  the  Indian  chief  in  chains.  The  sculptors  are 
few,  and  their  fame  so  far  is  only  local.  The  foremost  is 
Abelardo  Rodriguez  U.,  a  photographer  of  the  capital, 
who  is  something  of  an  artistic  genius.  His  photographs 
can  compete  in  artistic  merit  with  the  best  produced 
anywhere,  and  he  is  also  a  painter  of  no  small  merit. 
His  best  known  sculpture  is  the  figure  of  a  dying  guerilla 
soldier,  significantly  entitled,  "Uno  de  tantos" — "One 
of  so  many." 

Powerful  assistance  has  been  given  to  education  and 
artistic  development  by  various  clubs  and  literary 
associations,  especially  women's  clubs,  throughout  the 
country.  Though  at  times  eclipsed  by  revolutionary 
turmoil,  their  work  has  continued  undaunted  and  has 
had  gratifying  results.  The  educational  plane  attained 
by  Santo  Domingo  in  spite  of  all  obstacles,  and  the 
general  recognition  of  the  supreme  importance  of  public 
instruction,  justify  confident  predictions  of  advance  in 
the  future. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

MEANS    OF   TRANSPORTATION   AND    COMMUNICATION 

Railroads. — Samana-Santiago  Railroad. — Central  Dominican  Railway. — 
Roads. — Mode  of  Traveling. — Inns. — Principal  highways. — Steamer 
lines. — Postal  facilities. — Telegraph  and  telephone  lines. 

A  potent  cause  of  the  undeveloped  state  of  Santo 
Domingo's  agriculture  has  been  the  absence  of  trans- 
portation facilities,  which  has  likewise  been  a  cause 
and  an  effect  of  the  internal  disturbances.  There  are 
but  two  public  railroads  in  the  Republic,  both  in  the 
Cibao  region,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  144  miles. 
The  highways  are  generally  little  more  than  trails, 
difficult  and  dangerous  even  in  dry  weather,  and  almost 
impassable  in  the  rainy  season.  It  is  therefore  not  sur- 
prising that  the  northern  and  southern  sections  of  the 
Republic  should  have  developed  almost  as  different 
countries  and  that  large  areas  in  the  interior  should  be 
practically  uninhabited. 

The  importance  and  possibilities  of  railroad  lines 
have  been  recognized  and  numerous  concessions  for 
railroad  construction  have  been  sought  and  granted; 
but  the  concessionnaires  have,  as  a  rule,  either  been 
impecunious,  entering  the  field  only  with  speculative 
intentions,  or  have  been  frightened  off  by  the  internal 
disturbances,  and  in  either  case  the  concession  has  been 
permitted  to  lapse. 

The  oldest  of  the  two  railroads  now  in  operation  is  the 
road  known  as  the  Samana-Santiago  Railroad — some- 
thing of  a  misnomer,  as  the  road  neither  reaches 
Samana,  on  the  one  side,  nor  Santiago  on  the  other,  but 


208  SANTO  DOMINGO 

extends  from  Sanchez,  at  the  head  of  Samana  Bay,  to 
La  Vega,  a  distance  of  62  miles  in  the  interior,  with  a 
branch  to  San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  7  miles,  and  an- 
other branch  to  Salcedo,  1 1  miles,  and  Moca,  7  miles,  or 
a  total  length  of  87  miles.  Prior  to  its  construction,  the 
products  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Royal  Plain  had 
been  floated  on  lighters  or  light  draft  boats  down  the 
Yuna  River  and  across  Samana  Bay  to  Samana,  where 
they  were  transshipped  to  ocean-going  vessels.  The 
value  of  a  railroad  in  this  region  early  became  ap- 
parent, and  a  concession  granted  in  1881  was  acquired 
by  Alexander  Baird,  a  wealthy  Scotchman,  who  con- 
structed the  road.  Under  the  concession  the  Domin- 
ican government  granted  the  right  to  build  and  operate 
a  railroad  from  Samana  to  Santiago,  to  construct 
wharves  on  Samana  Bay  and  collect  wharf  dues,  and  to 
enjoy  certain  tax  exemptions  and  other  privileges. 

The  Gran  Estero,  the  large  swamp  just  west  of  San- 
chez, proved  much  more  difficult  to  cross  than  the 
engineers  had  calculated.  It  swallowed  up  tons  of 
rock  and  thousands  of  pounds  sterling.  Further  dis- 
appointment arose  when  public  lands  promised  by  the 
government  failed  to  materialize.  The  enthusiasm  of 
the  promoters  cooled  and  the  construction  work  on 
the  railroad  ceased  when  La  Vega  was  reached.  To 
the  east  of  Sanchez  the  road  was  continued  along  the 
Samana  peninsula  to  Point  Santa  Capuza,  but  this 
position  was  abandoned  and  the  terminus  was  estab- 
lished at  Sanchez.  The  road  from  Sanchez  to  La  Vega 
was  opened  to  traffic  in  1886. 

The  important  city  of  San  Francisco  de  Macoris  lay 
seven  miles  to  the  north  of  the  line  of  the  Samana- 
Santiago  railroad  and  in  1892  a  concession  was  granted 
to  a  prominent  Dominican  for  the  building  of  a  con- 
necting road.  It  was  constructed  with  Dominican 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     209 

capital  from  La  Gina  to  San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  and 
is  leased  to  the  Samana-Santiago  Road  and  operated  as 
a  branch  of  this  road. 

In  1907  the  Samana-Santiago  Railroad  waived  its 
right  to  the  percentage  of  import  duties  collected  at 
Sanchez,  in  consideration  of  a  payment  made  by  the 
government,  and  agreed  to  construct  a  branch  line  to 
Salcedo  and  later  continue  it  to  Moca.  A  line  from  Las 
Cabullas,  on  the  main  road,  to  Salcedo  was  promptly 
built  and  opened  to  traffic,  but  the  Moca  extension  was 
delayed  by  civil  disturbances  and  not  completed  until 
1917. 

The  gauge  of  the  Samana-Santiago  road  is  i.io  me- 
ters, about  three  feet  six  inches.  It  rises  very  gradually 
from  sea-level  at  Sanchez  to  the  altitude  of  La  Vega  and 
Moca,  about  400  feet.  The  engineering  problems  at- 
tending its  construction  and  preservation  have  been 
those  connected  with  the  crossing  of  the  Gran  Estero 
swamp,  and  the  bridging  of  numerous  small  tributaries 
of  the  Yuna  River,  which  from  modest  brooklets  in 
the  dry  season  swell  to  turbulent  torrents  in  rainy 
weather.  The  bridge  across  the  Camu  River  near  La 
Vega  has  been  washed  away  repeatedly  and  further 
trouble  has  been  caused  by  the  river  changing  its  course. 

The  journey  from  Sanchez  to  La  Vega,  including  the 
side  trip  to  San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  consumes  five 
and  a  half  hours.  After  leaving  Sanchez  the  end  of  the 
Samana  range  is  soon  reached  and  for  miles  the  train 
travels  across  a  mangrove  swamp,  where  the  bushy 
vegetation  is  exceedingly  dense  and  the  roadbed  is 
covered  with  grass.  Forests  follow,  the  trees  of  which 
are  encumbered  with  great  hanging  vines.  As  soon  as 
a  higher  level  is  reached,  clearings  become  frequent. 
At  the  stations  along  the  route  the  entire  population  of 
the  small  towns  seems  to  turn  out  to  await  the  train's 


210  SANTO  DOMINGO 

arrival.  At  two  larger  places,  Villa  Rivas  and  Pimentel, 
the  train  makes  lengthier  stops.  The  houses  all  along 
are  similar,  one  story  wooden  buildings,  generally  white- 
washed and  roofed  with  tiles,  corrugated  zinc  or  palm 
thatch.  La  Gina  is  the  beginning  of  the  branch  line 
which  extends  through  monotonous  woodland  to  San 
Francisco  de  Macoris.  On  the  main  line,  after  passing 
La  Gina,  there  are  numerous  cacao  plantations,  and  near 
La  Vega  the  muddy  Cotui  road  emerges  from  the  woods 
and  follows  the  railroad.  About  eight  miles  from  La 
Vega  is  the  station  of  Las  Cabullas,  the  starting  point 
of  the  branch  to  Salcedo  and  Moca. 

Affording,  as  it  does,  the  outlet  for  the  products  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  Cibao,  the  Samana-Santiago 
railroad  transports  the  greater  part  of  the  cacao  ex- 
ported from  the  country.  It  has  been  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  the  development  of  the  Royal  Plain, 
but  owing  to  the  country's  internal  troubles  was  run 
at  a  loss  for  years.  It  is  well  managed  and  of  late  years 
has  made  handsome  profits. 

The  name  of  the  other  Dominican  railroad  is  also 
misleading,  it  being  called  the  Central  Dominican  Rail- 
way, though  only  extending  from  Puerto  Plata,  on  the 
north  coast,  to  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  a  distance  of 
41  miles,  with  an  extension  to  Moca,  16  miles,  a  total 
of  57  miles.  Its  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
considered  the  first  section  of  a  road  which  was  ulti- 
mately to  connect  Puerto  Plata  and  Santo  Domingo 
City.  The  need  for  such  a  road  had  been  and  is  still 
urgently  felt,  and  the  construction  of  no  portion  was 
more  imperative  than  that  between  Santiago  and  the 
coast.  The  mountain  roads  in  this  section  were  inde- 
scribably bad;  a  trip  from  Santiago  to  Puerto  Plata 
meant  at  least  two  days  of  dangerous  riding;  and  all 
merchandise  to  and  from  Santiago  had  to  be  trans- 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     211 

ported  on  mule-back.  President  Heureaux  therefore  con- 
sidered himself  fortunate  when  the  Dominican  govern- 
ment was  able,  in  1890,  in  connection  with  a  bond  issue, 
to  make  contracts  with  the  banking  firm  of  Westendorp 
&  Co.,  of  Amsterdam,  for  the  construction  of  the  section 
of  the  railroad  from  Puerto  Plata  to  Santiago.  Belgian 
money  was  furnished  and  Belgian  engineers  made  the 
plans.  The  road  was  given  a  gauge  of  only  two  feet 
six  inches,  and  the  short-sightedness  is  inconceivable 
which  permitted  the  adoption  on  this  road  of  a  gauge 
different  from  that  of  the  Samana-Santiago  Railroad, 
when  the  two  were  expected  to  join  in  Santiago.  Ulti- 
mately the  gauge  of  the  Central  Dominican  Railway 
will  have  to  be  widened,  but  the  change  will  cost  a 
considerable  sum  and  require  a  complete  renovation  of 
the  rolling  stock.  In  view  of  the  steepness  of  the  slopes 
to  be  surmounted,  the  plans  contemplated  the  con- 
struction, on  several  portions  of  the  road,  of  a  rack-line 
or  cremaillere,  a  third  track  provided  with  cogs,  be- 
tween the  other  two,  and  the  use  of  special  mountain- 
climbing  locomotives  having  a  cogwheel  by  means  of 
which  the  ascent  was  to  be  accomplished  and  the 
descent  regulated.  The  Belgian  engineers  built  the 
road  from  Puerto  Plata  as  far  as  Bajabonico,  a  distance 
of  about  eleven  miles. 

At  this  stage  the  financial  difficulties  of  the  Domin- 
ican government  induced  the  Belgians  to  sell  their 
rights  to  American  interests,  which  formed  the  San 
Domingo  Improvement  Company  to  take  them  over. 
American  engineers  accordingly  finished  the  road  to 
Santiago.  The  rack-rail  feature  being  undesirable, 
plans  were  made  for  the  construction  of  the  road  as  an 
adhesion  road.  No  further  rack-rail  was  built  and  one 
of  the  portions  constructed  was  converted,  but  two 
short  stretches  of  rack-rail  remained  near  Puerto  Plata, 


212  SANTO  DOMINGO 

one  of  one  mile  and  another  of  three  miles.  The  Cen- 
tral Dominican  Railway  Company  was  incorporated  for 
the  operation  of  the  road. 

During  the  controversy  later  carried  on  between  the 
Dominican  government  and  the  San  Domingo  Improve- 
ment Company  the  Company  contended  that  the  road 
had  cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $3,000,000,  or  about 
$600,000  in  excess  of  the  sums  realized  by  the  sale  of 
the  bonds  assigned  by  the  government  to  defray  the 
cost  of  construction.  The  dispute  found  its  settlement 
in  the  protocol  of  January  31,  1903,  by  which  the 
Dominican  government  agreed  to  purchase  all  the 
holdings  of  the  Improvement  Company.  In  the  ne- 
gotiations of  which  this  convention  was  an  incident, 
the  value  of  the  railroad  was  generally  estimated  at 
$1,500,000.  Upon  the  delivery  by  the  Dominican  gov- 
ernment of  the  cash  and  bonds  agreed  upon  by  the 
settlement  of  1907  as  the  price  of  the  Improvement 
Company's  interests,  the  Company,  in  February,  1908, 
turned  over  the  railroad  to  the  government.  It  has 
since  been  operated  by  the  Dominican  government  with 
satisfactory  results,  though  it  has  suffered  serious  injury 
from  revolutions.  The  insurgents  destroyed  bridges  and 
the  rack-rail;  the  latter  has  not  been  replaced,  and  the 
four  and  ten  per  cent  grades  are  now  laboriously  over- 
come by  means  of  Shay  geared  engines.  Surveys  show 
that  the  troublesome  grades  can  be  avoided  by  the  con- 
struction of  curves  which  will  increase  the  length  of  the 
road  by  not  more  than  three  or  four  miles. 

Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country 
traversed,  the  scenery  on  this  road  is  splendid.  The 
speed  attained  by  the  trains  would  not  alarm  a  nervous 
wreck,  for  though  the  length  of  the  road  is  about  41 
miles,  the  ascent  from  Puerto  Plata  to  Santiago  takes 
almost  six  hours  and  the  return  trip  from  Santiago  five, 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION      213 

in  which  the  slow  engines,  the  steep  grades,  the  former 
rack-road  section  and  the  numerous  long  stops  have 
equal  shares  of  responsibility.  The  roadbed  is  very 
rough  and  the  passengers  are  considerably  shaken  up, 
but  the  memory  of  what  used  to  be  helps  to  mitigate  the 
discomfort.  On  one  of  my  trips  over  the  road,  when  a 
fellow-passenger  made  a  remark  about  the  severe 
jolting  that  almost  shook  us  off  our  seats,  an  elderly 
Dominican  gentleman  observed:  "My  friend,  you 
evidently  never  took  a  trip  from  Santiago  to  Puerto 
Plata  before  the  railroad  was  built.  Compared  with 
travel  then,  this  mode  of  conveyance  is  like  being  carried 
in  angels'  arms."  As  on  the  Samana-Santiago  Road, 
the  regular  trains  are  mixed  trains,  that  is,  a  freight  and 
passenger  together,  usually  looking  like  a  freight  train 
with  a  small  passenger  car  attached.  Except  in  un- 
usually dull  periods  there  is  one  daily  train  each  way. 
The  city  of  Santiago  is  about  600  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea;  from  here  the  course  is  over  a  rich  plain 
among  tobacco  farms  and  meadows  full  of  cattle,  for  a 
distance  of  about  twelve  miles,  until  the  foothills  are 
reached  and  the  ascent  of  the  coast  range  is  begun. 
Higher  and  higher  along  the  mountainside,  through 
country  wilder  and  wilder,  the  train  winds  its  way  to 
the  highest  point  of  the  road,  1580  feet  above  sea-level 
and  20  miles  from  Santiago,  where  a  short  tunnel 
pierces  the  mountain.  The  mountain  pass  at  this  point 
is  1720  feet  above  sea-level  and  is  the  lowest  one  in 
twenty  miles.  At  the  station  on  the  other  side  of  the 
mountain  a  fifteen  minute  stop  is  made  for  lunch.  Then 
begins  a  rapid  descent  along  a  deep  valley,  on  the 
wooded  slopes  of  which  little  houses  peer  out  between 
the  trees.  The  town  of  Altamira,  on  a  knob  in  the 
middle  of  the  valley,  is  passed,  and  further  down,  near 
Bajabonico,  a  small  sugar  plantation.  Another  ascent, 


214  SANTO  DOMINGO 

on  which  is  the  old  rack-road  section,  is  now  reached;  a 
powerful  mountain  engine  is  placed  before  the  train  and 
slowly  works  its  way  up.  From  the  top  of  the  ridge  the 
scene  is  magnificent.  Below,  in  the  far  distance,  Puerto 
Plata  is  seen,  a  miniature  city  with  tiny  bright-colored 
houses,  nestling  at  the  foot  of  the  great  verdure-covered 
cone,  Mt.  Isabel  de  Torres;  before  it  lies  its  almost 
circular  harbor  with  what  look  like  toy  ships  riding  at 
anchor;  the  foam  of  the  breakers  on  the  reefs  at  the 
harbor  entrance  gleams  in  the  sunlight;  and  beyond,  in 
vast  immensity  extends  the  blue  expanse  of  the  ocean. 
On  the  final  descent  quicker  time  is  made  than  any- 
where else  on  the  road. 

The  extension  of  the  Central  Dominican  Railroad 
from  Santiago  to  Moca  was  built  and  is  operated  by  the 
Dominican  government.  In  1894  a  franchise  was 
granted  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Company  for 
the  Moca  road,  and  grading  was  done  for  several  miles 
outside  of  Santiago,  but  the  financial  troubles  of  the 
Dominican  government  suspended  the  work.  When 
better  times  came,  the  government  in  1906  began  to 
build  the  road  from  Santiago  to  Moca  with  current 
revenues,  and  it  was  opened  to  traffic  in  1910.  At 
Moca  this  road  is  met  by  the  extension  of  the  Samana- 
Santiago  Railroad  from  Salcedo,  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
travel  by  rail  through  the  fertile  Cibao  from  Sanchez  to 
Puerto  Plata,  though  the  difference  in  gauge  requires  a 
change  of  cars  at  Moca. 

A  railroad  between  the  Cibao  and  Santo  Domingo 
City  has  long  been  contemplated.  Government  engi- 
neers a  few  years  ago  surveyed  a  route  from  Santo 
Domingo  City  to  La  Gina,  on  the  Samana-Santiago 
Railroad,  passing  through  Cotui.  The  route  is  80  miles 
long,  and  the  estimated  cost  is  about  $2,325,000.  Such 
a  through  railroad  would  open  up  great  tracts  now 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     215 

isolated,  afford  an  easy  means  of  communication  be- 
tween the  north  and  south,  and  be  of  inestimable  ad- 
vantage to  the  Republic.  It  is  the  most  urgent  and  im- 
portant public  work  under  consideration  in  the  country. 

Another  road  which  has  long  been  projected  and 
which  the  Dominican  government  in  1906  determined 
to  have  constructed  with  current  revenues,  is  one  in  the 
east,  from  Seibo,  on  the  plains  in  the  interior,  to  the 
port  of  La  Romana  in  the  southern  coast.  This  region, 
excellently  adapted  for  cacao  raising  and  sugar  plant- 
ing, has  been  kept  secluded  by  bad  roads.  After  several 
thousand  dollars  had  been  spent  in  surveys  and  a  little 
grading,  the  work  was  stopped  by  lack  of  funds  and  the 
government  decided  that  the-  expense  of  construction 
and  the  undeveloped  character  of  the  country  counselled 
an  abandonment  of  the  project  for  the  moment.  If 
the  railroad  is  finally  built,  it  will  probably  be  from 
Seibo  to  San  Pedro  de  Macoris  and  not  to  La  Romana. 

Even  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Santo  Domingo 
City  most  roads  are  in  such  bad  condition  that  during 
the  rainy  season  villages  only  a  few  miles  away  cannot 
be  reached  except  by  floundering  through  the  mud  for 
many  hours,  and  even  during  the  dry  season,  with  all 
conditions  favorable,  it  requires  two  days  hard  riding 
to  reach  the  city  of  Azua,  80  miles  to  the  west.  A 
railroad  from  the  capital  to  Azua  has  therefore  been 
proposed  repeatedly,  and  in  1901  a  concession  was 
granted  for  the  first  section  thereof,  from  Santo  Do- 
mingo to  San  Cristobal,  a  distance  of  16  miles,  with 
the  right  of  extension.  The  revolution  of  the  spring 
of  1903  interrupted  the  construction  of  this  road,  but  a 
little  work  was  done  in  1906  under  a  new  contract, 
which  has  since  been  declared  lapsed. 

Private  plantation  railroads  are  to  be  found  on 
several  sugar  plantations  near  La  Romana,  San  Pedro 


2l6  SANTO  DOMINGO 

de  Macoris,  Santo  Domingo  City  and  Azua,  and  on 
the  United  Fruit  Company's  plantation  near  Puerto 
Plata.  They  aggregate  about  225  miles  in  length  and 
are  used  exclusively  for  the  purposes  of  the  respective 
estates,  except  one  which  carries  passengers  between 
the  town  of  Azua  and  its  port  on  steamer  days. 

In  several  of  the  larger  cities  carriages  and  light 
automobiles  can  be  hired  at  a  reasonable  figure,  and 
furnish  the  principal  means  of  communication  within 
the  city  and  to  other  places  as  far  as  the  roads  will  per- 
mit. Between  Monte  Cristi  and  La  Vega  there  is  a 
regular  automobile  service,  as  also  between  Santo 
Domingo  City  and  nearby  towns.'  In  only  one  place  is 
there  a  car  line — in  Monte  Cristi,  where  a  small  car 
runs — if  that  term  can  be  applied  to  its  motion — be- 
tween the  town  and  the  harbor,  a  little  more  than  a 
mile  away.  The  cars,  each  drawn  by  a  meek  little 
mule,  remind  one  of  matchboxes  on  wheels;  they  are 
open  on  all  sides  and  contain  simply  two  benches,  back 
to  back,  which  will  hold  a  maximum  of  three  passengers 
each.  In  Santo  Domingo  City  there  was  a  horse  car 
line  for  almost  twenty  years,  running  out  as  far  as 
Fort  San  Geronimo,  about  three  miles;  but  in  March, 
1903,  while  the  city  was  under  siege  during  a  revolution, 
the  car  barns  were  destroyed  by  fire  and  with  them  the 
entire  rolling  stock,  the  car  axles  being  taken  for  barri- 
cades. In  1915  the  government  granted  several  fran- 
chises for  electric  car  lines,  one  for  Santo  Domingo  City, 
with  the  right  to  extend  as  far  as  Bani;  another  for 
Santiago,  with  the  right  of  extension  to  Janico;  and  a 
third  for  Macoris,  with  the  right  of  extension  to  Seibo, 
but  no  work  has  been  done  on  these  projects. 

On  certain  parts  of  the  country  roads  there  is  com- 
munication by  oxcart  during  the  dry  season,  and  in  the 
arid  region  such  communication  is  possible  almost  all 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION      ^\^ 

the  year  round.  On  the  Samana  peninsula  and  in  other 
mountain  districts,  merchandise  is  occasionally  trans- 
ported in  Indian  fashion,  on  two  poles  tied  to  a  horse 
and  trailing  on  the  ground  behind.  In  general,  how- 
ever, recourse  must  be  had  for  transportation  purposes 
to  the  faithful  horse  and  the  patient  donkey.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  Republic  the  ox  is  often  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden  and  sometimes  for  riding,  furnishing  an 
odd  spectacle.  The  ox  is  guided  by  a  string  tied  to  a 
ring  in  his  nose,  but  neither  the  configuration  of  his 
back  nor  his  gait  are  to  be  recommended  for  comfortable 
rides. 

Most  of  the  roads  of  Santo  Domingo  can  be  called 
roads  only  by  courtesy.  They  are  generally  little 
more  than  trails  of  greater  or  less  width.  The  larger 
receipts  enjoyed  by  the  government  since  the  customs 
collections  were  taken  over  by  Americans  in  1905,  have 
caused  a  little  improvement.  Thus,  a  first-class 
macadam  road  has  been  constructed  from  Santo  Do- 
mingo City  to  San  Cristobal,  a  distance  of  sixteen 
miles;  the  old  trail  from  Santo  Domingo  to  San  Pedro 
de  Macoris  has  become  available  for  automobiles;  and 
the  royal  road  in  the  Cibao  from  La  Vega  through 
Moca  and  Santiago  to  Monte  Cristi,  a  distance  of 
about  100  miles,  formerly  a  horror,  has  been  converted 
into  a  fair  dirt  road.  The  amount  of  work  to  be  done 
appears  all  the  more  appalling  when  it  is  considered 
that  in  the  small  island  of  Jamaica,  less  than  one- 
fourth  the  size  of  the  Dominican  Republic,  there  are 
1000  miles  of  fine  roads.  The  American  authorities 
in  the  island  are  giving  considerable  attention  to  the 
improvement  of  the  principal  highways  around  and 
between  the  more  important  cities,  and  valuable  work 
is  being  done.  By  an  executive  order  of  November  23, 
1917,  the  military  governor  appropriated  $650,000,  to 


2l8  SANTO  DOMINGO 

be  expended  on  portions  of  a  trunk  road  which  is  ulti- 
mately to  connect  Santo  Domingo,  La  Vega,  Moca, 
Santiago  and  Monte  Cristi. 

The  majority  of  the  roads  and  trails  have  scarcely 
been  touched  since  their  course  was  fixed,  centuries 
ago.  Occasionally  the  abutting  property  owners  or  an 
energetic  communal  chief  cut  away  encroaching  vegeta- 
tion or  drained  an  unusually  bad  bog  or  threw  dirt 
from  the  sides  of  the  road  to  the  middle  in  order  to 
raise  it  above  water  level  in  the  wet  season,  but  such 
instances  of  civic  thoughtfulness  have  been  only  too 
infrequent. 

During  the  rainy  season  travel  becomes  troublesome 
on  all  roads  and  impossible  on  many.  On  the  unim- 
proved highways  deep,  dangerous  bogs  form  in  every 
depression,  containing  either  liquid  mud  where  the 
horse  is  almost  forced  to  swim,  or  soft  tough  clay,  where 
the  horse's  feet  are  imprisoned  and  the  animal  in  its 
desperate  efforts  to  jerk  itself  free  indulges  in  contor- 
tions anything  but  pleasant  for  the  rider.  The  horses 
and  cargo  animals  ever  treading  in  each  other's  foot- 
steps, cause  the  earth  to  wear  away  in  furrows  across 
the  road,  which  fill  with  water  and  with  mud  of  all 
colors  and  conditions  of  toughness.  With  few  interrup- 
tions the  monotonous  splash,  splash,  splash  of  horses' 
feet  constantly  accompanies  the  traveler.  The  first 
ten  minutes  of  such  a  journey  on  slippery  ground  make 
the  trip  appear  an  adventure,  the  next  ten  an  expe- 
rience, but  after  that  the  expedition  becomes  exceed- 
ingly wearisome.  In  the  dry  season  all  moisture 
disappears  and  the  ridges  between  the  mud  trenches 
become  hard  as  brick.  The  efforts  of  travelers  to  avoid 
bad  places  by  going  around  them  has  caused  the  roads 
to  become  very  wide  in  places — the  width  varying  from 
one  to  over  a  hundred  feet.  At  times,  in  grassy  or 


Road  Scenes 

Above:  A  "calvario"  in  the  road 
Below:  A  mudhole 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     219 

stony  stretches,  the  road  disappears  entirely,  and  the 
traveler's  best  guide  is  the  telegraph  wire,  where  there 
is  one.  Again  it  passes  through  thorny  woods  with 
overhanging  branches  which  continually  threaten  to 
unhorse  the  rider.  Thus  it  winds  along,  through 
forests  and  plains,  over  fallen  logs  and  trees,  beside 
precipices,  down  steep  banks,  across  rapid  streams. 
A  trip  into  the  interior  in  Santo  Domingo  requires 
a  good  horse,  a  strong  constitution  and  a  large  supply 
of  patience. 

In  rainy  weather  the  traveled  roads  are  even  worse 
than  the  unfrequented  ones,  for  the  ground  is  rendered 
more  miry,  and  the  bogs  are  more  frequent.  On  a 
highroad  near  La  Vega  I  arrived  at  a  mudhole  where  an 
old  man  was  being  rescued  by  a  passer-by  from  drown- 
ing in  the  liquid  mud;  I  snapped  a  photograph  of  the 
scene  when  he  was  still  knee-deep.  Near  the  city  of 
Moca  there  is  a  slope  where  many  a  horse  has  fallen  and 
thrown  its  rider  on  the  slippery  loam.  A  friend  of  mine 
who  for  safety's  sake  alighted  from  his  horse  to  walk 
to  the  other  side  of  the  gully,  had  his  foot  so  tightly 
lodged  in  the  pasty  mud  that,  in  his  straining  to  with- 
draw it,  the  foot  slipped  out  of  the  shoe,  which  re- 
mained as  firmly  imbedded  as  before.  His  posture  and 
predicament  were  naturally  a  good  deal  more  amusing 
for  his  companions  than  for  himself.  Yet  some  of  these 
roads  in  dry  weather  are  excellent  dirt  roads.  On  a 
road  in  the  Cibao  I  made  a  trip  of  fifteen  miles  in  the 
rainy  season  in  five  hours  of  hard  riding  and  arrived 
with  an  exhausted  horse;  six  months  later  when  the 
road  was  dry  I  made  the  same  journey  comfortably 
in  an  hour  and  a  half.  On  the  first  of  these  occasions — 
it  was  in  the  course  of  a  vacation  trip  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  country — I  happened  upon  two  other 
travelers  and  together  we  floundered  for  many  weary 


220  SANTO  DOMINGO 

miles  through  black  mud  varying  from  the  consistency 
of  soup  to  that  of  pudding.  The  road  was  indescribably 
bad,  and  riders  and  horses  were  covered  with  mire  and 
thoroughly  fatigued.  That  evening  at  the  inn,  through 
the  open  door  between  our  rooms,  I  heard  my  traveling 
companions  discussing  me.  One  of  them  asked :  "  What 
is  his  object  in  coming  here?"  The  other  answered: 
"He  says  he  is  traveling  for  pleasure."  "Then,"  re- 
sponded the  first  solemnly,  "he  is  either  lying  or  he  is 
insane." 

The  streams  must  usually  be  crossed  either  by 
fording  or  by  ferry,  and  not  infrequently  the  horse  must 
swim  part  of  the  distance  across.  Outside  the  railroad 
bridges,  there  are  scarcely  half  a  dozen  bridges  which 
deserve  the  name  in  the  Dominican  Republic.  A  good 
bridge  has  recently  been  constructed  over  the.  Jaina 
River  on  the  San  Cristobal  road,  and  another  was 
completed  in  May,  1917,  across  the  Ozama  River  at 
Santo  Domingo  City,  in  place  of  one  destroyed  by  a 
freshet  some  years  ago.  Bridges,  where  there  are  any, 
are  generally  rude  logs  laid  across  brooks. 

When  journeying  overland  it  is  advisable  to  take 
advantage  as  much  as  possible  of  moonlight  nights. 
It  is  best  to  rise  at  two  or  three  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
ride  until  about  eleven  o'clock,  then  rest  for  about 
three  hours  while  the  sun  is  highest,  and  then  continue 
till  evening.  Riding  at  night,  however,  exposes  one  to 
the  danger  of  making  too  intimate  an  acquaintance 
with  some  mudhole  or  some  low  hanging  bough  or 
telegraph  wire,  but  these  risks  can  be  avoided  by 
vigilance.  The  hours  of  dawn  are  the  coolest  of  the 
twenty-four,  and  more  distance  can  be  covered  with  less 
fatigue  than  later  in  the  day. 

If  the  traveler  takes  the  precaution  to  furnish  himself 
with  canned  food  before  starting  on  a  journey  inland,  he 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION      221 

will  not  regret  his  foresight.  Inns  do  not  exist  out  in 
the  country.  In  the  larger  cities,  indeed,  there  are 
hotels,  but  all  are  modest  establishments.  Perhaps 
the  most  pretentious  is  the  French  Hotel  in  Santo 
Domingo  City.  In  hotels  which  are  located  in  impor- 
tant seaports  or  railroad  termini  and  are  frequented  by 
travelers,  the  meals  and  accommodations  are  fair.  In 
other  localities  the  food  is  almost  inedible  to  an  un- 
accustomed palate,  and  the  sleeping  accommodations 
are  primitive  cots.  Even  in  important  towns  like 
Moca  and  Azua  I  found  the  inns  kept  by  poor  mulatto 
women,  widows  with  families,  having  one  room  for 
travelers,  divided  from  the  family  apartment  by  a  thin 
partition,  through  which  all  the  proceedings  on  the 
other  side  could  be  followed  throughout  the  night. 

The  difficulty  of  land  transportation  explains  why, 
with  the  exception  of  three  cities  in  the  Cibao,  all 
important  towns  are  located  on  the  seacoast.  It  also 
makes  plain  why  water  transportation  is  preferred  to 
travel  by  land,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  and 
south  await  the  bi-weekly  steamer  rather  than  make  the 
trip  overland,  which  in  the  most  favorable  cases  will 
take  about  three  days.  The  roads  and  trails  are  used 
for  travel  locally  or  when  boat  connections  are  not 
convenient  or  feasible,  and  for  mail  transportation. 
The  following  are  the  principal  highways: 

I.  Road  from  Santo  Domingo  to  the  Cibao,  by  way 
of  Bonao.  There  are  three  roads  from  Santo  Domingo 
City  to  the  Cibao,  the  most  westerly  one  being  the 
Bonao  trail,  the  most  easterly  one  the  Sillon  de  la 
Viuda  and  the  middle  one  the  Gallinas  trail.  The 
Bonao  road  leaves  Santo  Domingo  by  way  of  Duar 
Avenue  and  San  Carlos  and  ascends  gently  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  through  slightly  rolling  land  to  the 
Santa  Rosa  plain,  which  it  traverses.  As  far  as  Los 


222  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Alcarrizos  it  has  been  improved,  but  further  on  it  is 
merely  a  dirt  road  without  drainage  and  becomes  one 
long  slough  in  rainy  weather.  On  the  Jobo  savanna 
the  road  divides;  the  eastern  branch  runs  along  a  range 
of  hills  and  the  western  branch  over  to  the  Jaina  River, 
where  it  passes  the  site  of  the  old  mining  town  of 
Buenaventura,  of  which  only  a  few  vestiges  of  walls 
remain.  Whichever  of  the  two  branches  the  traveler 
takes,  he  will  be  sorry  he  did  not  choose  the  other,  for 
they  are  equally  bad.  The  branches  meet  on  the  plain  of 
Las  Nasas,  from  where  the  highway  continues  through 
wooded  lands  and  natural  meadows,  crossing  the  Jaina 
River  three  times  and  the  Guananitos  River  nine  times. 
The  soil  is  a  rich,  soft  loam,  pure  vegetable  detritus, 
and  the  frequent  rains  and  the  absence  of  drainage  make 
this  part  of  the  road  very  difficult  at  all  seasons.  After 
crossing  a  stretch  of  beautiful  savanna,  known  as 
Sabana  del  Puerto,  the  ascent  of  a  range  of  the  central 
mountain  system  begins.  The  road  makes  many 
windings  along  the  mountain  side  until  the  heights  of 
Laguneta  are  attained.  The  high  hill  of  Piedra  Blanca 
must  be  crossed  and  a  number  of  small  streams  forded 
before  Bonao  is  reached.  From  Bonao  to  La  Vega  the 
road  is  of  the  same  general  character.  There  are  many 
miry  places,  many  ascents  and  descents  and  many 
difficult  river  passes,  the  Yuna  River,  near  Bonao,  being 
crossed  by  ferry.  On  some  of  the  steep  descents  the 
horses  and  mules  accustomed  to  the  road  put  their  four 
feet  together  and  slide,  while  the  unaccustomed  traveler 
feels  his  hair  standing  on  end.  The  distance  from  Santo 
Domingo  City  to  Bonao  is  about  65  miles;  from  Bonao 
to  La  Vega  some  30  miles. 

This  seems  to  have  been  an  ancient  Indian  trail 
between  Santo  Domingo  and  the  Cibao.  Bartholomew 
Columbus,  under  orders  from  his  brother,  founded  both 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     223 

Buenaventura  and  Bonao  in  1496  as  military  posts,  as 
part  of  the  chain  of  forts  stretching  across  the  island. 
The  decay  of  these  towns  when  the  mines  were  aban- 
doned, the  miry  soil  and  the  many  crossings  of  streams 
all  caused  travel  to  be  diverted  to  the  road  of  the 
Sillon  de  la  Viuda.  The  Bonao  road,  being  the  most 
direct  route  to  La  Vega,  has  been  designated  by  the 
military  government  for  improvement  as  a  trunk  road. 
2.  Road  from  Santo  Domingo  to  the  Cibao  by  way 
of  the  pass  of  the  Sillon  de  la  Viuda,  or  Widow's  Chair. 
While  the  Widow's  Chair  road  is  about  twenty  miles 
longer  than  the  Bonao  road,  it  is  preferable  since  on  the 
whole  it  lies  over  firmer  ground.  It  leads  due  north 
from  Santo  Domingo  City  and  after  four  miles  the 
Isabela  River  is  crossed  by  ferry  near  its  confluence  with 
the  Ozama.  A  steep  ascent  follows  and  the  road  runs 
through  wooded  land  until  the  town  of  Mella  is  reached. 
Small  forests  and  wide  savannas  follow  each  other  in 
rapid  succession;  the  Ozama  River  is  forded  and  a 
stretch  of  swampy  soil  with  bad  bogs  is  encountered. 
A  fine  piece  of  prairie  land  known  as  the  Luisa  savanna 
is  crossed,  more  natural  meadows  follow  and  the  ascent 
of  the  central  mountain  range  begins.  The  road  be- 
comes so  steep  that  the  rider  can  scarcely  keep  his  seat 
on  his  horse.  From  the  summit,  the  Widow's  Pass, 
which  is  almost  2000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  a 
sublime  view  of  mountains,  valleys  and  plains  is  ob- 
tained. The  pass  itself  is  a  narrow  rocky  defile  where  a 
score  of  men  might  hold  an  army  at  bay.  It  is  said  that 
there  are  lower  passes  in  the  vicinity  by  utilizing  which 
the  steep  grade  might  be  avoided,  but  the  fact  could 
be  ascertained  only  by  a  more  thorough  exploration 
than  has  yet  been  made.  On  the  north  the  road  de- 
scends through  heavy  timber,  with  many  miry  places. 
Savannas  separated  by  small  forests  are  then  crossed 


224  SANTO  DOMINGO 

and  the  little  town  of  Cevicos  is  reached,  the  halfway 
place  between  Santo  Domingo  and  La  Vega.  Eighteen 
miles  further  on,  separated  from  Cevicos  by  a  hard 
road  crossed  by  numerous  deep  gullies,  sleeps  the  an- 
cient town  of  Cotui.  The  Yuna  River  near  Cotui  must 
be  crossed  in  canoes.  Then  follows  a  road  thirty-five 
miles  long  to  La  Vega,  which  in  the  rainy  season  is  little 
more  than  mud  and  water,  but  leads  through  a  beauti- 
ful wooded  country.  It  is  better  to  take  the  road  from 
Cotui  to  La  Gina,  or  that  to  Pimentel,  on  the  Samana- 
Santiago  Railroad  and  complete  the  journey  by  rail,  for 
though  the  character  of  these  trails  is  similar  to  the  La 
Vega  trail,  they  are  only  about  fifteen  miles  long. 

3.  Road  from  Santo  Domingo  to  the  Cibao  by  way  of 
the  Gallinas  Pass.  This  is  also  an  ancient  trail  which 
formerly  passed  through  the  town  of  Yamasa,  but  was 
diverted  to  shorten  the  distance  to  the  Cibao.  Leaving 
Santo  Domingo  the  same  route  is  followed  as  in  going 
to  the  Widow's  Pass,  as  far  as  Mella,  where  the  road 
branches  off  to  the  left.  Small  grassy  plains  and  rolling 
wooded  lands  are  traversed,  as  is  also  the  wide  prairie 
known  as  the  Maricao  savanna.  Several  streams  are 
forded,  among  them  the  upper  Ozama,  and  the  country 
continues  of  the  same  general  character  until  the  huts 
on  the  old  cattle  ranch  of  la  Guazuma,  formerly  Las 
Gallinas,  are  sighted.  Here  the  road  slopes  upward  as 
far  as  the  foot  of  the  Demajagua  mountain,  when  a  long 
tedious  ascent  to  the  pass  begins,  followed  by  a  rough 
ride  through  the  mountains.  The  long  descent  toward 
Cotui  is  broken  by  numerous  water-courses.  No  less 
than  eleven  smaller  streams  are  forded,  and  there  are 
three  crossings  of  the  Chacuey  River,  before  the  road 
leading  to  Cotui  from  Cevicos  and  the  Widow's  Pass  is 
attained  near  the  former  town.  By  this  road  it  is  about 
65  miles  from  Santo  Domingo  to  Cotui. 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     225 

The  three  passes  described  are  the  only  ones  suitable, 
so  far  as  known,  for  communication  between  the 
capital  and  the  Cibao.  There  are,  indeed,  lower  and 
more  convenient  passes  farther  to  the  east,  but  the 
roads  emerge  near  Samana  Bay,  too  far  from  the 
Royal  Plain  to  be  available.  The  middle  route  of  the 
three,  that  by  way  of  the  Gallinas  Pass,  is  followed  by 
the  telegraph  line  and  used  by  the  post.  It  has  been 
preferred  by  travelers  for  it  is  considered  the  shortest 
road  to  the  Cibao  and  its  highest  point  is  reported  to 
be  only  about  1200  feet  above  sea-level. 

4.  Road  from  Santo  Domingo  to  Sabana  la  Mar. 
Since  the  southeastern  part  of  the  Dominican  Republic 
consists  of  great  plains,  the  roads  in  this  region  are  all 
perfectly   level   and   less   difficult   than    those   of   the 
mountains,  but  they  are  little  more  than  trails  and  the 
wide  savannas  make  traveling  monotonous.    The  road 
which  turns  northeast  from  Santo  Domingo  on  the  left 
side  of  the  Ozama  passes  the  sugar  estates  there  sit- 
uated,   continues  by  a  wide  path  through    a    lightly 
wooded  country  to  the  town  of  Guerra  and  shortly 
thereafter  enters  upon  the  Guabatico  prairie,  which  it 
crosses  in  its  entire  width  of  over  twenty  miles.    The 
ascent  to  the  first  pass,  that  of  the  Castellanos  moun- 
tain, then  begins.    The  descent  is  as  easy  as  the  ascent, 
a  valley  is  crossed  in  which  the  headwaters  of  the 
Macoris   River  are   forded,   and   then  follows   a   long 
ascent  to  the  second  pass.    From  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain to  El  Valle  and  Sabana  la  Mar  the  country  is 
wooded  and  the  road  level  and  wide,  but  so  miry  as  to 
be  practically  impassable  during  the  entire  rainy  season. 
The  distance  from  Santo  Domingo  to  Sabana  la  Mar  is 
something  over  sixty  miles. 

5.  Road  from  Santo  Domingo  to  Higuey.    This  road 
is  the  same  as  the  Sabana  la  Mar  road  as  far  as  Guerra, 


226  SANTO  DOMINGO 

then  traverses  small  forests  and  grassy  plains  to  Seibo, 
passing  through  the  important  towns  of  Los  Llanos  and 
Hato  Mayor.  The  greater  part  of  the  last  36  miles  of 
the  road,  from  Seibo  to  Higuey,  runs  over  the  foothills 
of  the  central  mountain  range.  The  entire  length  of 
the  road  is  about  1 10  miles. 

6.  Road  from  Santo  Domingo  to  Azua.  On  this 
ancient  road  more  military  expeditions  have  marched 
and  fought  than  on  any  other  in  the  island  of  Santo 
Domingo.  Spanish,  British,  French,  Haitian,  Domin- 
ican and  American  forces  have  tramped  on  its  dusty 
course.  The  road  runs  west  from  Santo  Domingo  City 
parallel  with  the  seashore.  Near  the  city  it  is  a  per- 
fectly level  boulevard  bordered  by  pretty  cottages. 
About  three  miles  from  the  town  the  small  fortress  of 
San  Geronimo  is  passed,  a  romantic  structure,  built  by 
the  early  Spaniards  as  an  outpost  against  piratical 
invasions.  Seven  miles  further  on  is  the  collection  of 
huts  constituting  the  town  of  Jaina  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  A  fine  new  bridge  spans  the  river  and  the 
road  continues  through  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation. 
The  little  town  of  Nigua,  with  an  old  chapel  perched 
high  on  a  hill,  is  reached,  and  here  the  road  divides,  the 
left  branch  continuing  near  the  seashore,  while  the 
right  branch  turns  inland  to  San  Cristobal.  The  former 
pursues  its  way  over  land  generally  level  though  with 
occasional  steep  hills  and  cut  by  frequent  brooks,  skirts 
the  ocean  beach  for  a  short  distance,  crosses  the  tur- 
bulent Nizao  River  by  a  long  and  dangerous  ford  and 
enters  the  arid  country.  The  other  branch  extends 
to  the  grass-grown  town  of  San  Cristobal,  where  the 
macadam  road  from  Santo  Domingo  ends.  Continuing, 
the  road  traverses  a  fertile  country  by  way  of  the  town 
of  Yaguate,  crosses  the  broad  bed  of  the  Nizao  River, 
which  changes  its  channels  with  dangerous  frequency, 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION      ^^^ 

threads  a  way  through  monotonous  woods  and  joins 
the  other  road  near  Paya.  But  a  few  miles  further  on  is 
the  clean  little  town  of  Bani.  From  here  two  roads  lead 
to  Azua.  The  inland  road  leads  through  the  pass  of  Las 
Carreras, — where  Santana  on  April  21,  1849,  assured 
the  independence  of  Santo  Domingo  by  his  victory  over 
the  Haitian  forces — and  finally  joins  the  coast  road. 
The  road  of  the  seacoast,  which,  though  longer,  is 
preferable  by  reason  of  being  more  level,  leaves  Bani 
through  a  weird  country,  where  giant  cactus  is  the  only 
vegetation  produced  by  the  rocky  soil.  After  crossing  a 
stretch  of  grass-grown  tableland  it  descends  to  the  waters 
of  Ocoa  Bay  and  continues  literally  through  the  surf. 
Several  hours  of  travel  through  a  dreary  forest  of  cactus 
and  thorny  brush  then  follow  before  Azua  is  reached. 

7.  Cibao  Valley  Road.  The  road,  or  combination  of 
roads,  from  Samana  Bay  to  Monte  Cristi,  lies  in  level 
country.  The  urgency  for  the  improvement  of  the 
eastern  portion  has  been  less  since  the  establishment  of 
the  railroad  from  Sanchez  to  La  Vega,  and  the  trail 
from  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yuna  River  to  San  Francisco 
de  Macoris,  with  the  branches  from  there  to  Moca  and 
La  Vega,  is  now  important  only  locally.  The  two  roads 
between  La  Vega  and  Santiago,  however,  in  the  heart 
of  the  Royal  Plain,  are  the  most  important  and  most 
heavily  traveled  highways  in  the  Republic.  They  run 
through  the  most  fertile  section  of  the  island,  are  quite 
level,  and  available  for  carts  and  automobiles,  but  in 
the  rainy  season  they  become  very  muddy.  The  direct 
road  from  La  Vega  to  Santiago  is  about  twenty-seven 
miles  long  and  lies  to  the  south  of  the  famous  Santo 
Cerro.  The  other  road  is  about  six  miles  longer  and 
passes  through  the  important  city  of  Moca.  After 
leaving  La  Vega  and  crossing  the  yellow  Camu,  the 
latter  road  skirts  the  northern  slope  of  the  Santo 


228  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Cerro  and  the  traveler  who  can,  deserts  it  tempo- 
rarily to  climb  the  rocky  height  and  regale  himself 
with  a  view  of  the  most  magnificent  valley  of  the  West 
Indies.  Upon  passing  the  second  brook  after  leaving 
the  foot  of  the  Santo  Cerro  the  road  traverses  historic 
ground,  for  here  stood  the  important  city  of  La  Con- 
cepcion,  or  old  La  Vega.  The  distance  from  La  Vega 
to  Moca  is  about  fifteen  miles  and  from  here  two  roads 
lead  on  to  Santiago,  both  about  eighteen  miles  long  and 
both  lined  with  fine  cacao  plantations,  but  one  turning  a 
little  to  the  south  while  the  other  approaches  the  foot- 
hills and  leads  through  the  smiling  town  of  Tamboril. 
From  Santiago  on  there  are  two  roads,  one  to  the  north 
and  the  other  to  the  south  of  the  Yaque  River.  They 
lie  through  a  dry  country  where  cactus  is  the  favorite 
product  of  the  soil.  The  road  along  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Yaque  is  the  better  of  the  two,  since  the  roadbed 
is  good  and  there  are  few  rivers  to  cross.  It  is  the 
highway  between  Santiago  and  Monte  Cristi,  a  distance 
of  sixty-seven  miles,  and  passes  through  the  inland  town 
of  Guayubin.  The  southern  road  crosses  numerous 
streams  which  flow  down  from  the  Cordillera  to  join 
the  Yaque,  turns  southwesterly  at  Guayubin  and 
continues  to  Dajabon  and  on  into  the  borders  of 
Haiti. 

The  above  are  the  highways  of  most  traffic.  There  is 
further  a  main  road  or  rather  trail  westward  from  Azua 
along  Lake  Enriquillo  and  leading  on  to  Port-au- 
Prince;  another  from  Azua  northwesterly  through  the 
fertile  valley  of  San  Juan,  also  leading  into  Haiti;  and 
two  perilous  trails  branching  off  from  the  latter  road 
and  running  through  remote  mountain  regions  to 
Santiago  and  La  Vega.  There  is  no  direct  communica- 
tion in  Dominican  territory  between  the  northwestern 
and  southwestern  portions  of  the  Republic,  and  it  is 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     229 

necessary  either  to  make  a  long  detour  or  to  pass 
through  Haitian  territory.  Less  important  local  trails, 
more  or  less  difficult  of  travel,  are  to  be  found  in  all 
inhabited  portions  of  the  country. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  troubles  of  land  travel,  recourse 
is  had,  whenever  possible,  to  water  transportation.  The 
foreign  steamship  lines  afford  considerable  relief  in  this 
respect,  for  they  generally  stop  at  more  than  one  port 
of  the  Republic.  In  normal  times  there  are  four  foreign 
steamer  lines  with  passenger  service  to  Dominican  ports, 
namely: 

The  Clyde  line,  with  bi-weekly  sailings  between  New 
York  and  Santo  Domingo,  stopping  at  Monte  Cristi, 
Puerto  Plata,  Samana,  Sanchez,  Macoris  and  Santo 
Domingo  City,  and  Azua. 

The  Cuban  "Herrera  Line,"  with  a  tri-weekly 
steamer  service  between  ports  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico, 
calling  at  Santo  Domingo  City  and  Macoris. 

The  "Compagnie  Generale  Transatlantique,"  two 
routes  of  which  touch  in  the  Republic.  A  monthly 
steamer  between  French  and  Haitian  ports  calls  at 
Puerto  Plata,  and  returning  also  at  Sanchez,  in  the 
Dominican  Republic,  and  then  makes  calls  in  Porto 
Rico  and  St.  Thomas.  A  smaller  steamer  plying  once  a 
month  between  Haitian  ports  and  Guadeloupe  and 
Martinique  calls  at  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Santo  Domingo 
City,  Porto  Rican  ports  and  St.  Thomas.  The  steamers 
on  these  routes,  though  not  uncomfortable,  are  venera- 
ble hulks  which  have  seen  long  service  in  different  parts 
of  the  world. 

The  Hamburg-American  Line,  a  monthly  steamer  of 
which  called  regularly  at  Santo  Domingo  City  and  also 
at  other  points  in  the  Republic  when  cargo  conditions 
were  favorable,  and  connected  with  other  ports  in  the 
Antilles  and  with  vessels  from  Europe.  Other  steamers 


230  SANTO  DOMINGO 

of  this  line  called  at  the  northern  ports  to  take  cargo  to 
Europe. 

There  is  further  a  fruit  line  between  Boston  and 
Puerto  Plata  and  sugar  steamers  between  New  York 
and  Macoris  during  the  cane  grinding  season,  but  they 
carry  no  passengers.  How  far  the  interests  of  Spain 
and  Santo  Domingo  have  diverged  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  not  one  of  the  Spanish  transatlantic  liners 
which  run  to  Porto  Rico,  Cuba,  Central  and  South 
America,  touches  in  Santo  Domingo. 

A  steamer  of  the  Bull  line  runs  between  ports  in 
Santo  Domingo  and  Porto  Rico  and  there  is  also  a 
coast  line  under  Dominican  registry,  which  extends  to 
Porto  Rico,  but  the  steamers  of  which  do  not  distin- 
guish themselves  for  comfort.  Thus  there  is  at  present 
frequent  steamer  service  between  Santo  Domingo  and 
Porto  Rico,  but  little  communication  with  Haiti  and 
Cuba. 

Most  of  the  steamer  lines  touching  in  the  Republic 
carry  mails.  Santo  Domingo  is  a  member  of  the 
International  Postal  Union  and  its  post  offices  offer  the 
usual  facilities,  except  that  there  is  no  money  order 
system.  More  than  three-quarters  of  the  incoming 
foreign  mail  comes  from  the  United  States,  including 
Porto  Rico,  and  over  one-half  the  outgoing  foreign  mail 
is  directed  to  this  country.  The  American  authorities 
are  engaged  in  a  thorough  re-organization  of  the  Do- 
minican postal  service. 

In  connection  with  the  post  offices  the  government 
operates  a  telegraph  and  telephone  system.  The  gov- 
ernment lines  connect  all  the  more  important  points 
in  the  country.  Constructed  without  plan  or  method 
and  insufficiently  cared  for,  these  lines  are  all  in  poor 
condition  and  badly  in  need  of  repair  or  reconstruction. 
The  charges  are  high  and  the  service  poor.  The  govern- 


TRANSPORTATION  AND  COMMUNICATION     231 

ment  also  has  a  wireless  telegraph  station  at  Santo 
Domingo  City  and  another  at  Macoris. 

The  French  Submarine  Telegraph  Co.  affords  Santo 
Domingo  cable  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  world. 
Its  cable  touches  at  Puerto  Plata  and  Santo  Domingo 
City,  crossing  the  Republic  by  means  of  a  land  line 
which  is  also  open  to  local  messages.  The  interruptions 
of  communication  over  this  land  line  in  the  various 
revolutions  have  given  rise  to  numerous  damage  claims 
on  the  part  of  the  Company. 

There  are  also  telephone  lines  on  the  Samana- 
Santiago  Railroad  and  on  the  Central  Dominican  Rail- 
road operated  in  connection  with  the  respective  roads. 
Local  public  telephone  systems  are  in  operation  in 
Santo  Domingo  City  and  San  Pedro  de  Macoris,  and 
there  are  private  telephone  lines  between  the  principal 
cities  and  plantations  in  their  vicinity. 


CHAPTER  XV 


COMMERCE 

Exports  and  imports.  —  Foreign  trade.  —  Trade  with  the  United  States.  — 
Ports  of  entry.  —  Wharf  concessions.  —  Domestic  trade.  —  Business 
houses.  —  Banks.  —  Manufactures. 

The  fact  that  Dominican  commerce  has  more  than 
trebled  in  twelve  years  demonstrates  the  epoch-making 
character  of  the  fiscal  convention  with  the  United 
States.  The  trade  figures  since  1905  are  as  follows: 


GROWTH  OF  DOMINICAN  TRADE 
(All  figures  are  in  American  currency) 


Imports 

1905  ...............  $  2,736,828 

1906  ...............     4»o6S»437 

»9<>7  ...............     4.948,96i 

1908  ...............     4,767.775 

1909  ...............     4,425,913 

I9»o  ...............     6,257,691 

I9»  ...............     6,949,662 

1912  ...............     8,217,898 

1913  ...............     9.272.278 

I9H  ...............     6,729,007 

1915  ...............     9.118,514 

11,664,430 


Exports  l 
$  6,896,098 
6,536,378 
7,628,356 

9,396,487 
8,113,690 
10,849,623 
10,995,546 
12,385,248 
10,469,947 
10,588,787 
15,209,061 
21,527,873 


Total 

$  9,632,926 
10,601,915 
12,577.317 
14,164,262 
12,539,603 
17,107,314 
17,945,208 
20,603,146 
19,742,225 

17,317.794 
24,327,575 

33.192,303 


The  increase  in  1916  over  1915  was  almost  as  much 
as  the  entire  trade  of  the  country  in  1905.  The  tem- 
porary setback  of  1909  was  caused  by  the  partial 

1  See  also  page  151. 


COMMERCE  233 

failure  of  the  cacao  crop  and  the  paralyzation  of  com- 
merce in  anticipation  of  lower  tariff  rates.  That  of 
1914  was  due  to  the  European  war  and  a  domestic 
revolution.  Santo  Domingo  has,  however,  repeatedly 
presented  the  anomalous  spectacle  of  showing  enormous 
trade  figures  in  the  midst  of  warfare,  as  for  example,  in 
1912.  The  advance  in  commerce  has  been  especially 
marked  since  the  presence  of  the  American  troops 
assured  peaceful  conditions. 

Not  a  year  has  passed  since  1904  without  a  large  bal- 
ance of  trade  in  favor  of  Santo  Domingo.  While  the 
greater  part  of  this  is  represented  by  huge  sugar  profits 
which  have  gone  to  foreign  investors,  a  considerable  por- 
tion remained  in  the  country.  The  great  increase  in 
wealth  since  1904  is  apparent  to  anyone  who  knew  the 
country  at  that  time. 

The  imports  cover  the  wide  range  to  be  expected  in  a 
nonmanufacturing,  agricultural  country  in  the  tropics. 
The  principal  imports  in  1916  were: 

Cotton  goods £1,721,534 

Iron  and  steel  manufactures,  including  sugar  machinery 1,562,367 

Rice 1,080,068 

Wheat  flour 621,900 

Provisions,  meat  and  dairy  products 53°»I95 

Oils 54S.284 

Bagging  and  other  manufactures  of  vegetable  fiber. 508,644 

Vehicles  and  boats 408,832 

Manufactures  of  leather 385,518 

Wood  and  manufactures  of  wood 3 17,421 

Codfish  and  other  preserved  fish  and  fish  products 309,204 

Chemicals,  drugs  and  dyes 293,072 

Soap,  and  ingredients  for  the  manufacture  of  soap 233,991 

Paper  and  manufactures  of  paper 171,706 

Beer 168,901 

Agricultural  implements 121,830 


234  •          SANTO  DOMINGO 

The  United  States  furnished  practically  all  the  flour 
and  other  breadstuffs,  oils,  lumber,  agricultural  imple- 
ments and  leather  articles  and  most  of  the  cotton  goods, 
hardware,  machinery,  fish,  meat  and  dairy  products. 
Before  the  European  war  all  the  rice  was  bought  in 
Germany,  as  well  as  a  considerable  portion  of  the  fish, 
beer,  meat  and  dairy  products.  At  present  the  rice  is 
brought  from  the  United  States  and  England.  The 
other  imports  from  England  are  almost  entirely  cotton 
goods  and  bagging,  with  some  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
tures. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  flora  of  the  country,  statistics 
are  given  with  reference  to  the  exports  of  the  country,1 
which  are,  as  there  pointed  out,  principally:  sugar, 
cacao,  tobacco,  coffee,  bananas,  beeswax  and  honey, 
hides,  cotton,  hardwoods  and  dyewoods. 

Owing  to  its  geographical  position  the  United  States 
naturally  has  the  greater  part  of  Dominican  trade,  but 
since  the  European  war  set  the  commerce  of  the  world 
awry  that  proportion  has  grown  until  in  1916  the  im- 
ports from  the  United  States,  including  Porto  Rico,  were 
90.4  per  cent  of  the  total  and  the  exports  to  the  United 
States  and  Porto  Rico  were  82.8  per  cent  of  the  total, 
though  the  latter  figure  varies  somewhat  from  final 
destination,  as  much  of  the  sugar  and  cacao  is  shipped 
subject  to  order.  Before  the  European  war  something 
more  than  one-half  of  the  trade  of  Santo  Domingo  was 
with  the  United  States,  one-fifth  with  Germany,  and  the 
remainder  with  France,  England  and  other  countries. 
The  countries  of  origin  of  imports  and  destination  of 
exports  of  the  Dominican  Republic  in  the  year  1916,  as 
compared  with  the  list  for  1913,  the  last  preceding 
normal  year,  are  here  shown: 

1  See  page  151. 


COMMERCE 


235 


DOMINICAN  TRADE  BY  COUNTRIES 
IMPORTS 

1913 


1916 


Cuba  

Vdut 

.  .$           7.1C2 

Per- 
centage 
of 
whole 

.08 

rdue 
t     n6,c87 

Per- 
centage 
of 
whole 

1.  17 

France  , 

271,1  1  8 

2  96 

IC2.tc8 

I   tO 

Iffii  Rii 

rfi    TO 

Italy  

171.  IOC 

1  87 

6i./ico 

CA 

Porto  Rico  

62,900 

.67 

•178.210 

1    24. 

Spain  

210.781 

2.27 

1C  I.AC  I 

1.  1O 

United  Kingdom  .  . 

71O.IQ  I 

7.88 

4.8  MOC 

4..  11 

United  States  

5,769,061 

62.22 

10,162,698 

87.11 

Other  Countries.  .  . 

166.717 

1.O5 

118.  162 

1.  10 

Total $9,272,278  loo.oo  $11,664,430  100  oo 

EXPORTS 

Cuba 27,536  .26  19,447  .09 

France 887,907  8.48  287,799  1.34 

Germany 2,068,384  19.76                

Italy 20,430  .19  2,496  .01 

Porto  Rico 28,994  .28  425,483  1 .98 

United  Kingdom 241.810  2.31  105,017  .49 

United  States 5,600,768  53-49  17,412,088  80.88 

Other  Countries 1,594,118  15-23  3*275,543  15.21 


Total $10,469,947        100.00  $21,527,873         100.  oo 

Very  interesting  statistics  with  reference  to  all  these 
matters  are  published  annually  in  the  report  of  the 
general  receiver  of  Dominican  customs.  Since  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  receivership  full  and  accurate  trade 
statistics  have  become  available  for  the  first  time  in  the 
history  of  the  Republic.  Before  1891  no  statistics  at 


236  SANTO  DOMINGO 

all  were  kept.  During  the  nineties  there  was  an  at- 
tempt at  compilation,  but  the  corruption  in  the  custom- 
houses was  so  notorious  that  the  figures  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  reliable.  For  the  disturbed  years  imme- 
diately following  the  death  of  Heureaux  the  data  are 
incomplete  and  uncertain. 

The  question  of  shipping  has  been  a  serious  problem 
confronting  Dominican  commerce  since  the  beginning 
of  the  European  war.  Freight  rates  are  rising  to  almost 
prohibitive  figures,  which  have  their  effect  in  an 
enormous  increase  in  the  cost  of  living.  Santo  Domingo 
has  as  much  reason  as  the  rest  of  the  world  to  desire  an 
early  cessation  of  the  world  calamity. 

After  the  war  the  old  trade  rivalry  will  be  revived, 
but  American  commerce  with  the  Republic  should 
easily  retain  its  lead,  if  properly  cultivated.  The 
observations  so  frequently  made  with  reference  to  the 
extension  of  American  trade  with  South  America  also 
hold  good  in  the  case  of  Santo  Domingo.  American 
merchants  should  send  as  representatives  cultured  men 
who  speak  Spanish;  they  should  provide  catalogs  in 
good  Spanish  with  accurate  descriptions  of  the  articles 
offered;  they  should  fill  orders  as  received,  without 
substituting  other  articles;  they  should  pack  their 
shipments  very  carefully  and  with  a  view  to  local 
transportation  conditions.  The  success  of  the  Germans 
in  building  up  their  Dominican  trade  was  due  in  large 
measure  to  the  polish  and  fluent  Spanish  of  their 
representatives,  to  their  thorough  study  of  local  condi- 
tions, and  to  their  favorable  terms  of  payment. 

American  commerce  with  Santo  Domingo  would  be 
further  stimulated  and  strengthened  by  a  tariff  rec- 
iprocity agreement  similar  to  the  customs  convention 
between  the  United  States  and  Cuba.  The  mutual 
advantages  of  such  an  agreement  would  be  enormous 


COMMERCE  237 

and  the  development  of  Santo  Domingo  would  be 
effectively  promoted.  Closer  relations  would  also  be 
fostered  by  a  postal  convention  applying  the  domestic 
rates  of  postage  to  all  mail  between  the  two  countries, 
a  good  beginning  having  been  made  by  a  recent  ar- 
rangement applying  the  domestic  postage  rate  to  let- 
ters between  the  United  States  and  the  Dominican 
Republic. 

The  Dominican  Republic  has  twelve  ports  of  entry, 
but  nine-tenths  of  the  foreign  commerce  goes  through 
the  ports  of  Macoris,  Santo  Domingo,  Sanchez  and 
Puerto  Plata.  The  first  two  supply  the  import  and 
export  requirements  of  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Republic,  the  other  two  those  of  the  Cibao.  The  other 
eight  custom-houses  exist  for  local  convenience  and  for 
the  prevention  of  smuggling.  This  is  especially  true 
of  the  three  along  the  Haitian  frontier.  In  former  years 
there  was  considerable  smuggling  across  the  border,  as 
the  import  duties  on  certain  articles  in  Haiti  are  much 
lower  than  in  the  Dominican  Republic.  Although  the 
profitable  smuggling  business  demoralized  trade  in 
those  regions,  the  government  did  not  interfere  with  it 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  policing  the  wild  and  sparsely 
populated  border  district.  The  American  general  re- 
ceiver determined  that  the  back  door  should  be  guarded 
as  well  as  the  front  entrance,  and  formed  a  frontier 
guard  which  stopped  contraband  traffic,  though  at  a 
heavy  cost,  for  two  brave  American  officials  have  been 
killed  and  three  wounded  by  smugglers  and  outlaws, 
while  fourteen  Dominican  guardsmen  and  inspectors 
have  been  killed  and  twenty-three  wounded.  The  ex- 
pense of  the  three  frontier  custom-houses  is  greater 
than  the  revenue  they  produce,  but  entries  in  Azua, 
Monte  Cristi  and  Puerto  Plata  increased  significantly 
after  the  frontier  guard  began  its  patrolling.  Inciden- 


238  SANTO  DOMINGO 

tally  the  guard  has  helped  to  keep  the  boundary  line  in 
place. 

In  the  seaports  most  of  the  loading  and  unloading  is 
done  by  lighters,  the  wharves  generally  being  small 
affairs.  Only  in  Puerto  Plata  (where  extensive  harbor 
improvements  are  now  under  way),  Macoris  and  Santo 
Domingo  can  larger  vessels  approach  the  wharves.  All 
the  wharves  were  built  under  concessions  from  the 
government,  which,  in  the  impossibility  to  provide  them 
itself  on  account  of  its  perpetual  lack  of  funds,  was 
obliged  to  procure  their  construction  by  granting  the 
right  to  collect  a  specified  wharf  tax,  more  or  less  oner- 
ous, for  a  period  of  years.  The  Santo  Domingo  City 
wharf  concession  provided  that  everything  exported 
from  and  imported  into  this  city  or  any  other  coast 
point  in  the  province  must  pay  the  tax,  whether  the 
wharf  was  used  or  not.  The  Samana  wharf  concession, 
as  amended,  gave  the  right  to  collect  certain  high 
wharf  taxes  for  fifty  years,  from  1875  to  1925,  in  return 
for  the  building  of  a  diminutive  dock.  One  of  the  im- 
portant objects  accomplished  through  the  1907  bond 
issue  was  the  redemption  by  the  government  of  the 
monopolistic  wharf  concessions. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  country's  domestic  trade  is 
that  almost  fifty  per  cent  of  it  is  in  the  hands  of  Syrians. 
These  people  are  found  in  a  number  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  but  nowhere  have  they  gained  such  a  foothold 
as  in  Santo  Domingo.  They  appeared  in  the  nineties, 
and  for  a  number  of  years  confined  their  activities  to 
peddling  goods  about  the  country,  both  men  and 
women  traveling  around  with  great  bundles  of  mer- 
chandise which  they  spread  out  wherever  they  met 
prospective  purchasers.  Their  next  step  was  to  estab- 
lish retail  stores  and  crowd  the  native  Dominican  store- 
keeper out,  and  of  late  years  they  have  opened  large 


COMMERCE  239 

business  houses.  They  are  not  regarded  as  a  desirable 
element,  as  they  do  not  amalgamate  or  mingle  with  the 
Dominican  population,  but  seem  possessed  of  the  single 
idea  to  make  a  fortune  and  return  with  it  to  their 
country. 

Such  part  of  the  retail  trade  as  is  not  controlled  by 
Syrians,  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Dominicans.  The 
stores  are  generally  small,  with  a  limited  stock  of  goods; 
they  have  no  show-windows,  but  are  arranged  on  the 
style  of  bazars.  Fixed  prices  are  rare  and  most  sales 
become  negotiations  with  the  polite  shopkeeper.  In 
the  country  it  is  customary  for  the  storekeeper  to  make 
advances  of  merchandise  to  the  smaller  farmers  until 
crop  time;  they  then  pay  him  in  cacao,  coffee,  tobacco 
or  other  farm  products,  which  he  remits  to  the  seaport 
to  the  wholesale  merchant  with  whom  he  deals. 

The  larger  business  houses  are  in  a  majority  of  cases 
owned  by  foreigners,  principally  of  Italian,  German, 
Spanish,  American  and  Cuban  citizenship,  and  now  also 
including  numerous  Syrian  firms.  A  majority  of  those 
classed  as  Americans  are  natives  of  Porto  Rico.  A 
number  of  these  merchants  anived  in  Santo  Domingo 
as  poor  men  and  by  hard  work  and  shrewd  investment 
built  up  respectable  firms.  They  carefully  preserved 
their  foreign  nationality  as  a  valuable  asset  which  pro- 
tected them  from  undue  interference  on  the  part  of  the 
government.  One  of  the  most  prominent  and  success- 
ful merchants  of  Santo  Domingo  was  the  late  J.  B. 
Vicini,  an  Italian  who  came  to  the  country  penniless, 
but  with  his  energy  and  sagacity  amassed  the  largest 
fortune  of  the  island.  His  business  is  now  managed  by 
his  sons. 

The  larger  merchants  combine  a  banking  business 
with  their  export  and  import  business.  The  foremost  of 
these  private  bankers  of  late  years  was  Santiago 


240  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Michelena,  a  Porto  Rican.  Less  than  ten  years  ago 
there  was  not  a  single  bank  in  the  Republic,  but  there 
are  now  three  well  equipped  banking  institutions,  all 
of  them  with  their  local  headquarters  in  the  capital. 
One  of  these  is  the  International  Banking  Corporation, 
which  is  connected  with  the  National  City  Bank  of  New 
York;  it  entered  the  Dominican  Republic  in  April,  1917, 
by  taking  over  Michelena's  banking  business.  It  has  a 
branch  in  Macoris  and  Puerto  Plata  and  agencies  and 
correspondents  throughout  the  country.  Another 
bank  is  the  Royal  Bank  of  Canada,  which  does  a 
flourishing  business  in  a  number  of  the  West  India 
Islands;  it  has  branches  in  five  cities  of  the  Dominican 
Republic.  The  third  bank  is  the  Banco  Nacional  de 
Santo  Domingo,  incorporated  by  Americans  under  the 
Dominican  banking  law  of  1909,  with  a  capital  of 
$500,000.  Although  it  has  several  branches,  its  busi- 
ness is  not  so  active  as  that  of  the  other  banks,  since  it 
has  lent  most  of  its  capital  to  the  government.  Under 
the  banking  law  this  institution  has  the  right  to  issue 
bank  notes,  but  it  has  not  attempted  to  use  the  priv- 
ilege. 

Slowly  the  establishment  of  small  factories  has  pro- 
ceeded, for  the  partial  provision  of  local  needs.  The 
principal  cities  have  ice  plants,  of  which  some  are  sub- 
ject to  annoying  interruptions.  In  the  Cibao  there  are 
several  sawmills.  Further  there  are,  in  the  larger  cities, 
small  establishments  for  the  manufacture  of  cigars, 
cigarettes,  matches,  rum,  straw  hats,  shoes,  chocolate, 
soap  and  a  few  other  articles.  These  are  financed  by 
Dominican  capital  and  are  not  able  to  supply  the  local 
demand.  In  Santo  Domingo  City  are  the  remains  of  a 
costly  brewery  erected  by  Americans  with  a  view  to 
supplying  the  West  Indies;  it  was  ruined,  so  local  reports 
say,  by  bad  management  and  has  been  idle  for  fifteen 


COMMERCE  241 

years.  If  the  amount  of  soap  used  by  a  people  is  really 
an  index  of  its  degree  of  civilization,  then  the  Domin- 
icans can  claim  to  be  far  advanced,  for  the  consumption 
of  soap  manufactured  in  the  country  and  imported,  is 
very  considerable.  The  government  has  encouraged 
manufacturing  enterprises  and  repeatedly  granted  con- 
cessions exempting  their  machinery  and  raw  material 
from  import  duties  for  specified  periods.  The  number 
of  manufacturing  plants  will  doubtless  increase,  but 
agriculture  is  bound  to  remain  the  mainstay  of  the 
country. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

CITIES    AND    TOWNS 

General  condition  of  municipalities. — Santo  Domingo  City;  ruins,  churches, 
streets,  popular  legends. — Other  towns  of  Santo  Domingo  Province. — 
San  Pedro  de  Macoris. — Seibo. — Samana  and  Sanchez. — Pacificador 
Province. — Concepcion  de  La  Vega. — Moca. — Santiago  de  los  Caba- 
lleros. — Puerto  Plata. — Monte  Cristi. — Azua. — Barahona. 

Compared  with  cities  in  the  United  States  a  majority 
of  Dominican  towns  are  hoary  with  age.  The  capital 
city  and  a  number  of  others  were  founded  more  than  a 
century  before  Virginia  was  settled,  and  had  begun  to 
decline  almost  a  hundred  years  before  the  Pilgrims 
landed  on  Plymouth  Rock.  Yet  such  have  been  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  country  that  only  one  city,  the  cap- 
ital, shows  signs  of  its  antiquity;  the  others  from  their 
appearance  might  be  taken  to  be  but  a  few  decades  old, 
and  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three  ancient  churches 
in  the  interior  none  of  the  older  buildings  of  these  towns 
have  survived  the  ravages  of  time,  wars  and  earth- 
quakes. The  modern  appearance  of  most  cities  is 
heightened  by  the  fact  that  frame  structures  pre- 
dominate, and  outside  of  Santo  Domingo,  Santiago, 
La  Vega  and  Puerto  Plata  stone  houses  are  infrequent. 

The  impoverishment  of  the  country  by  periodic 
revolutions  has  had  its  effect  on  the  municipalities  and 
prevented  their  proper  development.  In  no  city  are  all 
municipal  needs  and  services  properly  attended  to,  and 
in  most  towns  they  are  all  badly  neglected.  Sanitary 
inspection  is  nowhere  given  due  attention;  sewers  are 
practically  unknown;  but  two  cities,  Puerto  Plata  and 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  243 

Santiago,  have  a  general  system  of  waterworks,  the 
others  being  dependent  on  water  drawn  from  cisterns 
or  wells,  or  carried  from  rivers  or  springs;  in  all  but 
five  or  six  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  condition  of  the 
streets.  Only  Santiago,  Puerto  Plata  and  Santo 
Domingo  have  electric  light,  but  that  of  Santo  Domingo 
is  very  deficient.  Little  by  little  conditions  are  im- 
proving and  especially  the  larger  municipalities  are  en- 
deavoring to  improve  their  streets  and  provide  a  water 
supply. 

To  the  smallness  of  the  urban  centers  their  lack  of 
municipal  conveniences  is  partly  to  be  attributed.  The 
Dominican  towns  are  all  built  on  the  same  general  plan 
as  other  Spanish  cities,  being  constructed  around  a 
central  plaza  on  which  the  church  and  government 
building  are  located. 

The  principal  cities  are  the  capitals  of  the  twelve 
provinces,  and  the  city  of  Sanchez.  A  brief  description 
of  these  cities  follows,  with  a  reference  to  the  other 
more  important  towns  and  villages  of  each  province. 

PROVINCE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Santo  Domingo  de  Guzman,  the  capital  of  the  Repub- 
lic and  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  the  oldest 
city  founded  by  Europeans  in  the  new  world,  the  first 
city,  Isabela,  having  disappeared  a  few  years  after 
settlement.  It  was  founded  by  Bartholomew  Columbus 
in  1496  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Ozama  River  as  the 
capital  of  the  colony,  but  the  small  houses  constituting 
the  town  having  been  destroyed  by  a  hurricane  in 
1502  it  was  transferred  to  the  west  bank  of  the  river 
by  order  of  Governor  Ovando.  It  grew  rapidly  in 
population  and  wealth  until  it  merited  the  eulogies  of 
Oviedo  who  wrote  to  Charles  V  in  1525  that  he  did  not 


244  SANTO  DOMINGO 

hesitate  to  assure  that  there  was  not  in  Spain  a  city  he 
would  prefer  whether  on  account  of  advantageous  and 
agreeable  location,  beauty  and  arrangement  of  squares 
and  streets  or  charms  of  the  surrounding  country,  add- 
ing that  "their  Highnesses  oftentimes  lodged  in  palaces 
which  have  neither  the  conveniences,  the  ample  size  nor 
the  wealth  of  some  of  those  in  Santo  Domingo."  By 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  city  had  passed 
the  zenith  of  its  glory,  and  its  capture  by  Drake  in  1586 
and  the  destruction  of  the  houses  about  the  main  plaza 
was  a  severe  blow.  The  decline  continued  rapidly, 
although  in  1655  the  city  was  still  strong  enough  to 
repel  an  invasion  by  Admiral  William  Penn.  In  1684 
and  1691  it  was  visited  by  destructive  earthquakes  and 
in  1700  it  was  full  of  ruins  among  which  grew  great 
trees.  The  lowest  ebb  was  reached  about  1737  when 
the  population  had  fallen  to  500  "and,"  writes  Father 
Valverde,  "more  than  half  the  buildings  of  the  capital 
were  entirely  ruined,  and  of  those  still  standing  two- 
thirds  were  uninhabitable  or  closed  and  the  other  third 
was  more  than  enough  for  the  population.  There  were 
houses  and  lands  whose  owners  were  unknown,  and  of 
which  people  took  advantage  as  belonging  to  the  first 
one  who  might  occupy  them,  either  because  there  was 
entire  lack  of  heirs  of  the  owners  or  because  they  had 
emigrated  elsewhere."  In  a  few  years,  however,  the 
tide  of  fortune  turned  and  the  city's  rise  was  as  rapid 
as  its  decline  had  been  long,  until  by  about  the  year 
1790  it  had  quite  recovered  its  ancient  glory.  Another 
reverse  was  quick  in  coming,  for  the  cession  to  France 
in  1795  and  the  revolt  of  the  negroes  in  French  Saint- 
Domingue  drove  away  the  best  inhabitants.  In  1801 
Toussaint  1'Ouverture  took  possession  of  the  city  and 
in  1805  it  was  successfully  held  by  the  French  against 
the  siege  of  the  negro  emperor  Dessalines.  This  siege 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  245 

was  the  beginning  of  a  series  lasting  for  a  century. 
In  1809  after  a  desperate  struggle  the  city  was  recap- 
tured for  Spain  by  the  Dominicans,  but  from  1822  to 
1844  it  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Haitians,  and  abandoned 
by  all  the  whites  who  could  flee.  Since  the  declaration 
of  Dominican  independence  in  1844  almost  every 
revolution  has  involved  a  siege  of  the  capital.  Within 
the  last  twenty-five  years  the  city  has  made  rapid 
strides  forward  and  spread  far  beyond  the  old  city 
walls.  • 

To  the  stranger  Santo  Domingo  is  by  far  the  most 
interesting  city  of  the  Republic,  on  account  of  its 
stirring  history  and  its  venerable  monuments  of  the 
past.  Unfortunately  the  relics  of  the  early  days  have 
met  with  scant  respect  from  later  generations,  and 
ruins  which  would  be  the  pride  of  other  cities  have  been 
wantonly  demolished.  The  Haitian  governors  gloried 
in  this  kind  of  vandalism,  using  the  old  churches  as 
quarries  and  destroying  the  coats  of  arms  of  famous 
families  which  were  cut  in  stone  on  the  facades  of  their 
former  houses  and  in  their  chapels  in  the  cathedral. 
One  which  they  left,  on  a  house  on  Mercedes  street, 
adjoining  the  government  building,  was  obliterated  in 
1907  by  the  erection  of  a  balcony.  Since  the  declaration 
of  independence  ignorance  and  negligence  have  been 
responsible  for  much  damage  and  the  few  administra- 
tions which  took  an  interest  in  the  old  monuments 
needed  all  their  money  for  military  purposes.  Ancient 
bastions  have  been  needlessly  razed,  inscriptions 
effaced  and  no  steps  taken  for  the  preservation  of  such 
memorials  as  remained.  In  1883  a  concession  for  the 
improvement  of  Santo  Domingo  harbor  even  provided 
that  the  concessionnaire  might  tear  down  the  ruins  be- 
longing to  the  state  and  use  the  material  for  filling  pur- 
poses; happily  he  was  able  to  carry  out  but  little  of  this 


246  SANTO  DOMINGO 

part  of  the  contract.  The  great  majority  of  the  brick 
and  stone  structures  of  Santo  Domingo  are  ancient 
houses  and  convents  preserved  or  rebuilt  with  more  or 
less  alteration.  In  some  cases  behind  walls  and  door- 
ways of  great  age  are  little  huts  of  the  poor.  Though 
many  signs  of  the  past  have  thus  disappeared,  many  still 
remain.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  American  authorities 
in  Santo  Domingo  will  be  less  indifferent  to  the  preser- 
vation of  ancient  monuments  than  has  been  the  case 
in  other  West  Indian  countries. 

The  most  interesting  ancient  building  is  the  massive 
ruin  known  as  the  "House  of  the  Admiral"  or  "House 
of  Columbus,"  which  even  now,  after  centuries  of  neg- 
lect and  decay,  gives  eloquent  testimony  of  former 
greatness.  It  was  built  soon  after  1509  by  Diego  Co- 
lumbus, the  son  of  the  great  navigator,  on  a  height 
overlooking  the  Ozama  River.  Here  Diego  Columbus 
governed  with  regal  splendor  and  here  most  of  his 
children  were  born.  It  was  the  home  of  his  widow, 
Maria  de  Toledo,  until  her  death  in  1549.  Here  also 
their  son  Louis  Columbus  lived  for  many  years  and 
embarked  on  two  of  his  mad  marriages.  Another  son, 
Cristobal,  who  was  in  the  government  employ  in  Santo 
Domingo,  also  seems  to  have  lived  in  this  house,  after 
Louis  went  to  Spain  in  1551.  On  Cristobal's  death 
in  1571  and  that  of  Louis  in  1572,  it  passed  to  Cristo- 
bal's son  Diego.  From  the  date  of  this  Diego's  death 
in  1578,  when  the  direct  male  line  of  the  Discoverer's 
descendants  became  extinct,  the  history  of  the  house 
becomes  obscure:  it  was  sequestered  by  court  decree 
in  the  course  of  the  long  inheritance  litigation  between 
the  members  of  the  Columbus  family  and  appears  to 
have  been  awarded  in  1583  to  the  Admiral  of  Aragon, 
son  of  a  sister  of  Louis  and  Cristobal,  and  in  1605  to 
Nuno  de  Portugal,  grandson  of  another  sister;  the 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  247 

former  may  have  sojourned  there  temporarily,  but 
it  is  doubtful  whether  the  latter  or  any  of  his  descend- 
ants ever  visited  Santo  Domingo.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  it  was  occupied  for  a  time  by  the  family 
of  Luis  de  Avila,  judge  of  Santo  Domingo  City,  who 
was  married  to  a  daughter  of  Cristobal  and  whose 
children  were  still  living  in  the  colony  at  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  When  in  1790  a  descendant 
of  this  Avila  was  at  length  awarded  the  last  vestiges  of 
the  Columbus  honors,  no  attention  seems  to  have  been 
given  to  this  house,  which  was  then  as  complete  a  ruin 
as  at  present,  though  it  was  in  better  condition  and 
the  arcade  supporting  the  front  porch  was  still  extant. 

The  edifice  is  built  of  stone  blocks;  porches  sup- 
ported by  graceful  arches  were  once  an  attractive 
feature;  the  windows  and  principal  doorways  were 
embellished  with  handsome  arabesques;  and  Oviedo 
and  other  chroniclers  dwell  at  length  on  the  magnif- 
icence of  the  interior.  They  especially  refer  to  the 
beauty  and  value  of  a  sculpture  showing  the  arms  of 
Castile,  located  in  the  great  reception  hall  behind  the 
viceroy's  throne.  At  the  present  time  the  building  is 
reduced  to  a  mere  shell,  roofless  and  windowless;  in  a 
part  of  its  interior  there  is  a  little  palm  thatch  shelter 
for  stabling  horses;  while  the  court  yard  and  terrace 
reek  with  offal  from  dirty  cabins  round  about. 

At  the  foot  of  the  house  of  Columbus  is  part  of  the 
old  city  wall  erected  in  1537  and  of  which  numerous 
portions  remain  intact,  though  all  traces  of  the  moat 
have  disappeared.  The  old  city  was  in  the  form  of  a 
trapezium  occupying  an  area  of  a  caballeria  or  about 
200  acres,  and  the  wall  on  the  north  side,  provided  with 
numerous  redoubts  and  watch  towers,  was  much  the 
longest,  the  western  wall  being  the  shortest.  Santo 
Domingo  is  one  of  the  cities  of  the  Spanish  main  which 


248  SANTO  DOMINGO 

lay  claim  to  the  story  that  when  the  accounts  for  the 
city's  walls  were  laid  before  the  king  of  Spain,  he  went 
to  the  window  and  gazed  at  the  horizon,  saying  he  was 
"looking  for  the  reflection  of  those  walls,  for  they  must 
be  built  of  gold,  they  cost  so  much."  Judging  by  the 
relative  size  of  the  walls,  the  story  should  rather  be 
awarded  to  Cartagena,  in  Colombia,  or  possibly  to  an- 
other city,  but  Santo  Domingo's  walls  are  massive 
enough  to  have  justified  the  Spanish  king  in  squinting 
at  the  horizon,  at  least.  The  ancient  gates  which  were 
formerly  closed  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  still  remain, 
but  no  longer  afford  the  only  means  of  ingress  and  egress 
as  breaches  have  been  made  in  the  walls  at  most  street 
terminations.  The  most  famous  of  the  old  gates  is  the 
"Puerta  del  Conde,"  "Gate  of  the  Count,"  so  called 
because  it  was  constructed  by  the  Count  of  Peiialva, 
Governor  of  Santo  Domingo,  about  1655,  though  the 
bastion  through  which  it  leads  is  as  old  as  the  city  wall. 
It  was  here  that  the  cry  of  independence  was  raised  on 
February  27,  1844,  and  it  is  therefore  regarded  as  the 
cradle  of  Dominican  independence  and  its  official  name 
is  "Bulwark  of  the  twenty-seventh  of  February." 
Another  important  gate  is  the  "Gate  of  San  Diego," 
also  called  "Gate  of  the  Admiral,"  near  the  ruins  of 
Diego  Columbus'  house  and  affording  communication 
with  the  wharves  on  the  Ozama  River.  It  is  one  of  the 
original  three  gates  of  the  city.  Up  the  river,  near  the 
lumber  market,  is  a  very  old  ceiba  tree  to  which  it  is 
claimed  Columbus  once  tied  up  his  vessel.  Still  further 
up  the  river  is  a  spring  the  enclosure  about  which  is  said 
to  have  been  built  by  Diego  Columbus. 

"La  Fuerza,"  the  fort  and  barracks,  is  situated  at  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  city.  According  to  an  inscrip- 
tion over  the  gate  it  was  built  in  the  year  1783.  Within 
its  enclosure  on  a  bluff  at  the  place  where  the  Ozama 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  249 

empties  into  the  sea,  rises  the  ancient  citadel,  the  "Torre 
del  Homenaje,"  "Tower  of  Homage"  the  enormously 
thick  walls  of  which  were  erected  not  later  than  1504. 
There  are  many  who  affirm  that  it  was  built  before 
1500,  although  the  town  was  then  situated  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river,  and  a  cell  with  a  small  barred  window 
is  pointed  out  as  the  cell  in  which  Bobadilla  impris- 
oned Columbus  before  sending  him  to  Spain  in  chains. 
Others  claim  that  recently-discovered  old  foundation- 
walls  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  were  the  foundations 
of  the  building  in  which  Columbus  was  confined'.  "  In 
that  case,"  Dominican  wags  observe,  "the  Tower  of 
Homage  is  the  place  where  he  would  have  been  con- 
fined if  it  had  then  been  erected."  In  any  event  the 
tower  and  the  terraces  below  it  are  the  oldest  fortifica- 
tions constructed  by  white  men  in  America.  Cortez  and 
Pizarro,  Velazquez,  Ponce  de  Leon,  Narvaez  and  many 
others  passed  out  of  the  Ozama  River  under  the  shadow 
of  this  building,  full  of  hope  for  the  future.  Within  its 
somber  walls  have  been  immured  many  an  Indian 
chief  in  the  time  of  the  conquest  and  many  a  revolu- 
tionist in  later  days.  The  tower  proper  has  been  for 
years  a  political  prison,  while  around  the  courtyard  at 
its  base  on  the  riverside,  is  the  common  jail. 

The  churches  form  an  important  connecting  link 
between  old  and  new  Santo  Domingo.  Of  these  the 
most  beautiful  and  imposing  is  the  cathedral,  built  in 
what  may  be  called  Ibero-Romanesque  style.  As  early 
as  1506  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ordered  its  erection,  in 
1512  a  grant  of  revenue  was  made  and  two  years  later 
the  work  of  construction  was  begun.  In  one  of  the 
chapels  is  a  large  rough-hewn  mahogany  cross  on  which 
is  painted  the  legend:  "This  is  the  first  sign  planted  in 
the  center  of  this  field  to  mark  the  beginning  of  this 
magnificent  temple  in  the  year  MDXIV."  The  work 


250  SANTO  DOMINGO 

progressed  slowly;  an  inscription  in  the  doorway  leading 
to  the  plaza  states  that  the  church  was  completed  to 
that  point  in  1527  and  another  inscription  in  the  old 
choir,  torn  down  in  1877,  stated  that  the  building  was 
finished  in  1540.  It  is  probable  that  the  original  plans 
called  for  an  even  loftier  building.  One  of  the  towers 
first  projected  was  begun,  but  it  was  never  concluded 
and  the  belfry  is  still  a  temporary  one.  Of  late  years 
there  have  been  attempts  to  provide  for  the  completion 
of  this  tower  by  popular  subscription.  The  building 
has  been  damaged  repeatedly  by  earthquakes  and  the 
repairs  made  have  changed  its  original  outer  appearance 
on  the  plaza  side.  In  its  roof  there  is  still  lodged  a 
cannon-ball  fired  into  the  city  by  a  Spanish  battery  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  1809. 

In  the  interior,  great  pillars  of  a  soft  dark-red  tint 
support  the  high  groined  arches  and  the  effect  is  severe 
and  impressive.  The  altar  at  the  head  of  the  nave  is 
beautifully  inlaid  with  wrought  silver  and  is  sur- 
mounted by  the  coat  of  arms  of  Spain  placed  there  by 
order  of  Charles  V,  a  relic  of  Spanish  days  which  was 
hidden  away  while  the  Haitians  were  in  possession  of 
the  city.  On  the  altar  platform  a  marble  slab  indicates 
the  place  where  the  bones  of  Columbus  were  found  in 
1877,  another  slab  the  former  location  of  the  remains 
taken  to  Cuba  in  1795  as  the  remains  of  Columbus,  and 
still  another  the  resting  place  of  Louis  Columbus,  the 
grandson  of  the  Discoverer.  At  the  end  of  the  nave, 
near  the  entrance  door,  is  the  airy  marble  monument 
beneath  which  is  guarded  the  casket  that  contains  the 
remains  of  the  Discoverer  of  America. 

The  cathedral  like  the  other  churches  is  made  more 
interesting  by  the  ancient  epitaphs  on  slabs  in  the  pave- 
ment and  walls,  marking  the  burial  places  of  persons 
famous  in  the  history  of  the  island.  In  one  of  the 


Above:  Entrance  to  Cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo 

Below:  "House  of  Columbus,"  Ruins  of  Diego  Columbus'  Palace 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  251 

lateral  chapels,  which  belonged  to  the  Bastidas  family, 
the  resting  place  of  Bishop  Bastidas,  who  in  the  early 
days  was  bishop  in  Venezuela,  Porto  Rico  and  Santo 
Domingo,  is  marked  by  a  large  marble  recumbant 
figure  of  a  bishop  and  the  chapel  is  therefore  known  as 
"the  chapel  of  the  stone  bishop."  Nearby  is  the  tomb 
of  his  father,  that  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas  who  was  im- 
prisoned by  Bobadilla,  and  an  epitaph  full  of  abbrevia- 
tions which  reads: 

"Here  lies  the  very  magnificent  Sir  Don  Rodrigo  de 
Bastidas,  first  Adelantado  and  Governor  and  Captain- 
General  of  Santa  Marta,  who  in  the  year  1502  discovered 
Terra-firma  by  order  of  the  Catholic  Sovereigns  from  Cape 
Vela  to  Darien:  he  died  March  28,  1527." 

Close  by  is  another  epitaph: 

"Here  lies  the  virtuous,  Christian  and  religious  lady  Dona 
Isabel  Rodrigo  de  Romera,  native  of  the  noble  town  of 
Carmona,  who  was  wife  of  the  Adelantado  Don  Rodrigo  de 
Bastidas  and  mother  of  the  most  reverend  Bishop  of  San 
Juan,  Don  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas.  She  died  September  15, 
1533.  May  she  rest  in  peace." 

And  in  Latin: 

"I  believe  that  my  Redeemer  lived  and  that  on  the  judg- 
ment day  I  shall  be  resurrected." 

In  another  chapel  is  a  slab  ten  feet  long  with  an 
elaborate  coat  of  arms,  surmounted  by  a  helmet  with 
flowing  plumes,  and  having  an  inscription  reading: 

"Here  lies  the  magnificent  knight  Diego  Caballero,  coun- 
cilor of  this  Island  of  Espanola,  first  secretary  of  the  first 
Royal  Audiencia  which  the  Catholic  Sovereigns  established 
in  these  Indies.  He  died  January  22,  1553." 


252  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Surrounding  this  inscription  is  another: 

"Likewise  lies  here  the  generous  lady  Isabel  Bacan,  his 
good  wife:  she  died  in  the  year  1551." 

Above  is  a  verse  stating  that  he  flourished  with  the 
strength  given  him  by  God,  and  on  an  adjoining  stone 
are  the  words: 

"  I  have  ended  my  cares.  Hope  and  fortune,  remain  and 
seek  others  to  mock." 

On  another  tombstone  is  the  inscription: 

"This  tomb  belongs  to  Don  Francisco  de  Almansa,  canon 
of  this  holy  principal  church  and  commissioner  of  the  Holy 
Inquisition,  and  to  his  heirs." 

There  are  many  other  interesting  inscriptions.  In 
one  of  the  chapels  is  an  artistic  gem,  a  well  preserved 
picture  of  Our  Lady  of  Antigua,  presented  by  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  who  are  represented  in  an  attitude  of 
devotion  at  the  foot  of  the  Virgin.  It  is  probably  by 
Antonio  del  Rincon,  their  court  painter.  Other  very 
old  and  obscure  paintings  in  the  church  are  ascribed  to 
Velazquez  or  Murillo.  Another  chapel,  adorned  with 
the  Dominican  coat  of  arms  in  marble  relief,  is  the 
resting  place  of  Dominican  celebrities. 

The  oldest  Christian  church  in  the  new  world  was 
that  of  San  Nicolas,  founded  by  Governor  Nicolas  de 
Ovando  in  1502.  It  was  suffered  to  go  to  ruin,  then 
restored  and  used  as  a  military  hospital  and  then  again 
abandoned  to  decay  until,  overgrown  with  weeds  and 
almost  roofless,  it  was  latterly  used  by  a  blacksmith  as 
his  workshop.  The  suggestion  was  frequently  made 
that  it  be  converted  into  a  museum  of  Dominican 
antiquities,  but  the  matter  was  neglected  too  long  and 
in  1909  the  historic  building  was  condemned  and  the 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  253 

front  portion  demolished,  but  the  groined  arch  over  the 
presbytery  remains. 

The  most  picturesque  ruin  of  the  city  is  that  of  the 
church  of  San  Francisco,  erected  by  the  Franciscan 
monks  about  1504  at  the  most  conspicuous  point  in  the 
city,  and  which  is  now,  after  the  destruction  of  San 
Nicolas  church,  the  oldest  church  ruin  in  America.  It 
was  the  largest  church  in  old  Santo  Domingo.  Here 
were  deposited  and  probably  still  rest,  the  remains  of 
Bartholomew  Columbus,  the  brother  of  the  Discoverer. 
The  church  and  convent,  like  several  other  churches  of 
the  city,  were  badly  damaged  by  the  earthquake  of 
1751  but  were  rebuilt  better  than  before.  When  the 
Haitians  came  the  church  was  abandoned;  in  1824  it 
was  assigned  to  the  negro  immigrants  from  the  United 
States  as  a  Methodist  church,  but  it  was  allowed  to  go 
to  complete  ruin  and  much  of  its  masonry  was  utilized 
by  the  Haitian  rulers.  A  small  part  of  the  monastery 
has  been  rebuilt  for  use  as  an  asylum  for  the  insane. 
The  Franciscan  community  was  one  of  the  wealthiest  of 
the  city,  and  fronting  on  the  city's  principal  market 
still  stands  a  large  house  formerly  belonging  to  it  and 
known  as  the  "Casa  del  Cordon,"  "House  of  the  Cord," 
because  of  a  Franciscan's  girdle  hewn  in  stone  over  the 
doorway.  Tradition  says  that  Diego  Columbus  resided 
here  while  his  palace  was  under  construction. 

The  other  larger  churches  have  all  been  restored  and 
among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  church  of  St. 
Dominic  or  Santo  Domingo  founded  in  1507,  with 
massive  walls  and  arches.  It  contains  numerous  tombs 
belonging  to  families  that  flourished  in  the  island  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  but  most  of 
the  inscriptions  are  rudely  carved.  A  slab  in  one  of  the 
chapels  shows  a  coat  of  arms  with  thirteen  stars;  there 
is  no  inscription  further  than  a  short  Latin  quotation 


254  SANTO  DOMINGO 

from  the  26th  psalm,  but  the  stone  is  supposed  to  date 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  to 
mark  the  grave  of  Lope  de  Bardeci,  the  founder  of  the 
chapel.  Other  churches  are  the  lofty  Mercedes  church 
by  the  side  of  the  ruined  monastery  of  the  friars  of 
Mercy;  the  church  of  Regina  Angelorum,  the  spacious 
building  adjoining  which,  now  used  by  the  courts  of 
justice,  was  formerly  a  nunnery;  that  of  St.  Clara, 
formerly  a  nunnery  and  rebuilt  from  ruin  in  1885  by 
the  sisters  of  charity;  the  church  of  San  Lazaro,  at  the 
leper  asylum;  the  quaint  old  church  of  Santa  Barbara; 
and  the  chapel  of  San  Miguel,  founded  about  1520  by 
Miguel  de  Pasamonte,  the  royal  treasurer,  an  invet- 
erate enemy  of  the  Columbus  family.  The  old  Jesuit 
church  is  used  as  a  theater  and  the  former  Jesuit  con- 
vent is  occupied  by  business  houses  and  private  resi- 
dences. 

The  main  plaza  of  Santo  Domingo  is  a  pretty  square 
planted  with  flowers  and  shade  trees.  In  the  center 
stands  a  bronze  statue  of  Columbus  who  is  represented 
with  the  flag  of  Spain  taking  possession  of  Quisqueya 
for  his  sovereigns.  At  the  foot  of  the  pedestal  is  an 
Indian  writing  thereon  the  words  found  engraved  on 
the  box  that  contained  what  are  believed  to  be  Co- 
lumbus' remains:  "Illtre-  y  Esdo-  Varon  Dn  Cristoval 
Colon,"  "Illustrious  and  noble  man  Don  Cristopher 
Columbus."  On  the  south  side  of  the  plaza  is  the 
cathedral,  on  the  west  side  the  old  city  hall,  recently 
renovated  and  provided  with  an  ugly  tower,  and  on  the 
east  side  the  government  building,  erected  during  the 
Haitian  occupation  with  bricks  from  the  San  Francisco 
and  Santa  Clara  churches.  Popular  superstition  there- 
fore regards  this  building  as  unlucky  and  points  out  that 
one  of  the  Baez  brothers  was  killed  in  a  revolution  when 
the  family  resided  here.  The  edifice  was  for  years 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  255 

occupied  by  all  the  government  offices  until  the  renova- 
tion of  the  ancient  palace  of  government.  Adjoining 
is  the  small  building  in  which  the  Dominican  Congress 
meets.  It  occupies  a  site  on  which  in  the  olden  days 
stood  a  prison,  the  walls  of  which  still  remain  behind 
the  Congress  Hall.  The  spacious  building  known  as  the 
old  palace  of  government  is  one  of  the  most  ancient 
edifices  in  the  city.  Its  cornerstone  was  laid  about 
1504  by  Ovando  and  it  contained  the  offices  of  the 
Spanish  governors-general  in  colonial  times.  Through 
neglect  it  was  permitted  to  fall  to  ruin  but  since  190x3 
it  has  gradually  been  renovated.  Nearby  is  a  large 
sundial,  elected  in  1753. 

The  old  palace  of  government  is  on  Colon  street, 
which  was  in  the  early  days  called  "Calle  de  las 
Damas,"  "Street  of  the  Ladies,"  because  on  it  resided 
the  ladies  who  came  from  Spain  with  the  wife  of  Diego 
Columbus.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  old  street 
names  which  were  pregnant  with  memories  of  the  past 
have  been  so  lightly  changed.  At  present  most  of  the 
streets  are  named  after  events,  battles  or  persons 
prominent  in  the  more  recent  history  of  the  country. 

The  streets  of  the  capital  are  not  quite  so  narrow  as 
those  of  Havana,  San  Juan  and  other  old  Spanish  cities. 
After  years  of  neglect  the  principal  streets  have  at 
length  been  placed  in  excellent  condition  and  the  steam 
roller  has  even  invaded  the  side  streets.  The  sidewalks 
are  generally  narrow,  being  only  about  three  feet  in 
width,  and  as  municipal  supervision  over  them  has  not 
been  carefully  exercised,  there  are  differences  in  grade 
along  the  sidewalks  of  certain  streets  and  in  passing 
along  it  is  necessary  to  go  up  and  down  steps.  Along 
the  improved  streets,  however,  new  sidewalks  and  gut- 
ters have  been  constructed.  The  style  of  architecture  of 
the  houses  with  their  thick  walls  and  iron-barred  win- 


256  SANTO  DOMINGO 

dows  makes  the  streets  resemble  those  of  other  Spanish- 
American  cities.  Among  the  finest  buildings  of  the 
city  may  be  counted  the  palatial  quarters  of  the  young 
men's  club  "Casino  de  la  Juventud"  and  of  the  Union 
Club,  of  which  the  most  prominent  men  of  the  city, 
especially  merchants,  are  members.  Leading  out  of 
the  city  are  two  boulevards  along  which  are  fine  res- 
idences of  wealthier  Dominicans. 

A  city  of  such  history  naturally  abounds  with  popular 
legends.  Stories  are  current  of  a  network  of  ancient 
subterranean  passages  which  are  said  to  connect  the 
principal  churches  and  the  fort,  and  knowledge  of  the 
location  of  which  has  been  lost  because  their  entrances 
have  either  been  walled  up  or  become  obstructed  by 
debris.  Local  historians  deride  such  tales,  though 
admitting  that  underground  passages  may  have  existed 
at  isolated  points.  It  is  related  that  not  many  years  ago 
a  woman  was  digging  in  her  garden  on  a  street  which 
passes  the  ruins  of  Mercedes  convent,  when  the  earth 
gave  way  and  an  aperture  became  visible.  Her  husband 
investigated  and  found  a  subterranean  passage  which 
led  across  the  street  and  directly  under  the  convent 
ruins,  where  it  was  choked  up  with  stones  and  earth. 
Other  stories  refer  to  deep,  forgotten  vaults  said  to  exist 
under  many  buildings.  Popular  rumor,  morbid  when 
dealing  with  President  Heureaux,  affirms  that  in  vaults 
under  the  ancient  mansion  which  was  converted  into  a 
palace  for  him,  the  remains  of  some  of  his  victims  were 
found.  In  vaults  and  dungeons  under  the  barracks  of 
La  Fuerza  the  Spaniards  in  retiring  from  the  island  at 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  secreted  part  of 
their  military  supplies.  Many  years  later  an  old  man 
who  had  assisted  in  walling  up  the  stores  revealed  their 
existence  to  President  Baez  and  he,  when  besieged  in 
Santo  Domingo  in  1857  brought  them  out  and  utilized 


"1  ower  of  Homage,"  Santo  Domingo  City,  the  oldest  stronghold  erected  by 
white  men  in  America 

Above:  View  from  mouth  of  Ozama  River. 

Below:  View  from  interior  of  Fort.    The  highest  of  the  three  windows  gives 
hght  to  the  cell  in  which  Columbus  is  said  to  have  been  confined 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  257 

them  against  the  revolutionists.  The  old  mortars  and 
grenades  were  found  in  excellent  condition  and  at 
first  caused  a  panic  among  the  besiegers  who  thought 
the  shells  had  fallen  from  the  sky. 

The  favorite  stories  are  those  relating  to  buried 
treasure.  During  the  vicissitudes  through  which  the 
island  has  passed  and  especially  during  the  troublous 
period  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  and  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  many  persons  who  left  the 
country  first  secreted  their  valuables  in  the  belief  that 
their  absence  would  be  only  temporary.  They  did  not 
return,  their  property  passed  into  other  hands  and  the 
treasure  was  forgotten.  Occasionally,  too,  people 
buried  their  money  for  safe-keeping  and  died  without 
imparting  the  secret.  There  have  been  authenticated 
cases  of  treasure-trove,  especially  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  finds  have  almost  always  been 
accidental,  as  when  in  hanging  a  hammock  a  nail  gave 
way  and  revealed  a  cavity,  or  in  rebuilding  a  hidden 
orifice  was  disclosed.  In  many  popular  stories  a  for- 
eigner with  a  map  plays  a  part.  According  to  one  of 
these  tales  a  stranger  appeared  some  years  ago  near 
Mercedes  church  taking  measurements,  so  that  the 
neighbors  thought  him  insane.  He  finally  approached 
the  owner  of  one  of  the  houses  and  offered  to  rent  it. 
When  his  increased  offers  were  refused  he  drew  from 
his  pocket  a  paper  which  he  said  showed  the  location  of 
a  hidden  treasure  and  offered  the  houseowner  a  share 
if  he  were  permitted  to  make  the  search.  The  cupidity 
of  the  other  was  aroused  and  he  would  agree  to  take 
nothing  less  than  three-fourths  of  the  whole,  where- 
upon the  stranger  in  a  rage  lit  a  match  and  burnt  the 
paper  before  the  horrified  houseowner's  eyes,  exclaim- 
ing: "Now  you  will  never  find  it."  For  months  after- 
wards the  proprietor  delved  through  the  ground  below 


258  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  house  and  perforated  the  walls  in  scores  of  places, 
but  the  prediction  of  the  stranger  would  probably  have 
been  verified  had  it  not  been  for  an  accident.  Some 
four  years  later,  after  a  heavy  rain,  a  woman  of  the 
neighborhood  came  to  draw  water  from  the  cistern  of 
this  particular  house.  As  the  rope  stuck  in  the  pulley 
she  gave  a  tug,  slipped  and  fell  into  the  cistern  to  her 
waist  in  water.  Her  screams  brought  assistance  and  as 
she  was  drawn  out  it  was  noticed  that  in  her  descent 
she  had  loosened  several  bricks  in  the  wall  of  the 
cistern.  An  examination  revealed  an  aperture  large 
enough  to  hold  a  man,  and  filled  with  plate,  jewelry 
and  coins. 

In  another  story  the  stranger  was  more  fortunate. 
He  rented  a  small  house,  also  on  Mercedes  street,  pay- 
ing several  months'  rent  in  advance.  When  after  a  few 
days  the  house  was  found  closed  it  was  thought  the 
stranger  had  taken  a  trip  to  the  country,  but  when  two 
and  three  months  passed  and  the  tenant  did  not  re- 
appear, the  proprietess  applied  to  the  authorities. 
The  door  was  forced  open  and  in  the  middle  of  the  room 
a  deep  hole  was  found,  at  the  bottom  of  which  was  an 
empty  strongbox,  while  smaller  boxes  and  the  pick  and 
shovel  used  in  the  excavation  lay  scattered  around. 
On  a  table  in  the  corner  lay  a  parchment  with  a  map 
that  showed  the  location  of  the  strongbox.  Further 
investigation  revealed  that  the  stranger  a  week  after 
his  disappearance  took  passage  on  a  schooner  for  a  for- 
eign port. 

The  fortunate  finders  of  such  treasures  have  generally 
kept  silence  in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  adverse 
claimants,  and  when  discovered  would  minimize  the 
find.  Popular  rumor  still  designates  several  houses  as 
containing  hidden  treasures.  One  of  them,  situated  on 
Billini  Plaza,  near  the  cathedral,  has  all  but  been  torn 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  259 

to  pieces  by  tenants  in  vain  efforts  to  penetrate  the 
secret.  In  other  cases  the  rumors  are  more  vague. 
General  Ferrand,  the  energetic  French  governor  of 
Santo  Domingo,  is  reported  to  have  buried  the  state 
treasure  before  departing  in  1808  on  the  disastrous 
expedition  in  which  he  lost  his  life  in  Palo  Hincado,  and 
in  more  than  one  place  excavations  have  been  made  to 
seek  it. 

Outside  the  walls  of  the  city  is  the  cemetery,  which  is 
pretty  and  clean  and  has  many  vaults  and  varicolored 
plants.  The  most  conspicuous  objects  are  the  crosses 
which  surmount  the  graves  and  the  iron  fences  sur- 
rounding many  lots,  with  a  little  lantern  at  each  corner. 
The  lanterns  are  lighted  up  on  All  Souls'  Day,  when 
people  flock  to  the  cemetery  and  decorate  the  graves  of 
their  departed  friends  with  wreaths  and  flowers. 

An  interesting  monument  of  old  Santo  Domingo  is 
the  small  fortress  of  San  Geronimo,  which  stands  de- 
serted on  the  ocean  shore  about  three  miles  from  the 
city.  It  was  built  in  the  early  days  of  Spanish  coloniza- 
tion as  a  protection  against  foes  who  might  land  up  the 
coast  and  is  a  good  specimen  of  medieval  military 
architecture,  with  its  walls  of  immense  thickness,  its 
watch  towers,  its  deep  moat  and  its  dark  dungeons. 
In  revolutions  it  was  usually  garrisoned  and  has  been 
taken  and  retaken  unnumbered  times,  and  in  1903  it 
was  bombarded  by  a  Dominican  cruiser. 

In  the  midst  of  its  monuments  of  the  past  Santo 
Domingo  throbs  with  the  life  of  the  present.  Being 
one  of  the  principal  ports  and  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment it  is  the  busiest  city  of  the  Republic.  Its  docks, 
markets  and  business  streets  are  always  congested  with 
workers  and  traders. 

San  Carlos  is  a  suburb  of  Santo  Domingo  City,  ad- 
joining the  same  on  the  northwest,  and  since  1910 


260  SANTO  DOMINGO 

forming  an  integral  part  thereof.  It  was  founded 
towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  Canary 
Islanders.  Owing  to  its  proximity  to  Santo  Domingo 
and  as  part  of  the  town  overlooks  the  capital,  it  has  in 
all  the  sie'ges  of  Santo  Domingo  been  held  by  the  be- 
siegers and  lost  heavily.  The  fifteen  days'  siege  by 
the  negro  emperor  Dessalines  in  1805  caused  serious 
damage;  in  the  siege  of  eight  months  in  1808  by  Juan 
Sanchez  Ramirez  it  was  almost  entirely  ruined;  in  the 
fifteen  days'  siege  of  1849  by  Santana  it  was  burned;  in 
the  nine  months'  siege  of  1857  by  Santana  it  was  again 
partially  destroyed  and  since  that  time  in  every  siege 
it  has  sustained  damage.  In  the  two  months'  siege 
in  the  beginning  of  1904  the  church  and  other  buildings 
were  damaged  by  shells,  and  several  blocks  of  dwellings 
were  burned  to  the  ground.  Yet  the  town  has  always 
risen,  phcenix-like,  from  its  ashes.  One  of  the  points 
of  interest  is  an  old  public  cistern  of  great  size  and 
depth.  Near  San  Carlos  is  the  picturesque  grotto  of 
Santa  Ana,  said  to  have  been  an  Indian  sanctuary. 

On  the  Ozama  River  opposite  the  capital  is  Villa 
Duarte,  formerly  called  Pajarito.  On  an  adjoining 
estate  is  the  ruined  chapel  of  Rosario,  believed  to  date 
from  the  first  city  of  Santo  Domingo  and  which  may 
have  been  the  church  where  Bobadilla  proclaimed  his 
authority  over  Columbus.  Not  far  from  the  town  is  an 
interesting  cave  with  three  crystal  pools  called  Tres 
Ojos. 

San  Cristobal,  about  16  miles  to  the  west  of  the 
capital,  had  only  a  chapel  and  two  or  three  huts  in 
1820,  but  attained  more  importance  when  slaves  freed 
by  the  Haitians  on  the  surrounding  sugar  estates  settled 
there. 

Bani  is  a  pretty  little  town  founded  in  1764  and 
situated  about  39  miles  west  of  Santo  Domingo,  be- 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  261 

tween  the  foothills  and  the  sea.  Its  chief  pride  is  that 
it  was  the  birthplace  of  Maximo  Gomez,  the  famous 
warrior  for  Cuban  independence.  Gomez  became  a 
major  in  the  Spanish  army,  fought  against  his  country- 
men during  the  War  of  the  Restoration  and  abandoned 
Santo  Domingo  with  the  Spaniards,  but  this  record  has 
been  forgiven  by  the  Dominicans  in  view  of  his  later 
services  in  behalf  of  Cuba  libre. 

Bayaguana  and  Monte  Plata,  about  30  and  28  miles 
northeast  of  Santo  Domingo,  respectively,  were  both 
founded  in  1606  for  the  settlement  of  residents  of  coast 
towns  destroyed  in  order  to  stop  smuggling,  the  former 
receiving  the  inhabitants  of  Bayaja  and  Yaguana,  the 
latter  those  of  Monte  Cristi  and  Puerto  Plata.  The 
church  of  Bayaguana  is  visited  by  many  pilgrims  who 
come  to  adore  an  image  of  Christ  to  which  miracles  are 
attributed. 

Other  villages  of  the  province  are:  San  Lorenzo  de  los 
Minas,  3  miles  northeast  of  Santo  Domingo,  first 
settled  in  1719  by  negroes  of  the  Minas  tribe,  refugees 
from  French  Santo  Domingo;  San  Antonio  de  Guerra, 
situated  in  the  plains  19  miles  northeast  of  the  capital; 
Boyd,  32  miles  northeast  of  the  capital,  founded  in 
*533  by  Enriquillo,  the  last  Indian  chief  and  by  the  last 
survivors  of  the  Indians  of  the  island:  it  contains  an  old 
church  of  composite  aboriginal  Gothic  architecture,  in 
which  the  remains  of  Enriquillo  and  of  his  wife  Dona 
Mencia  are  believed  to  rest;  Mella,  7  miles,  and  La 
Victoria,  12  miles  north  of  the  capital;  Yamasd,  30  miles 
northwest  of  Santo  Domingo;  and  Sdbana  Grande,  or 
Palenque,  22  miles  west  of  the  city. 

PROVINCE  OF  SAN  PEDRO  DE  MACOR/S 

San  Pedro  de  Macoris,  about  45  miles  east  of  Santo 
Domingo  City,  is  one  of  the  most  modern  and  flourish- 


262  SANTO  DOMINGO 

ing  cities  of  the  Republic.  In  1885  it  was  merely  a  small 
fishing  village,  about  that  time  sugar  plantations  began 
to  be  established  in  the  surrounding  plains  and  the  town 
commenced  to  grow.  To-day  there  are  pretty  houses, 
the  streets  are  clean  and  in  good  repair,  the  plaza  has  a 
handsome  park  and  the  whole  city  wears  a  prosperous 
look.  There  are  busy  scenes  on  the  modern  docks  and 
in  the  harbor.  Around  Macoris,  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
Republic,  there  are  large  numbers  of  beautiful  graceful 
cocoanut  palms  and  royal  palms. 

The  Province  of  Macoris  is  small  and  contains  but 
one  other  town  worthy  of  mention,  namely,  San  Josf  de 
los  Llanos,  about  15  miles  northeast  of  Macoris,  founded 
in  the  plains  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

PROVINCE  OF  SEIBO 

Santa  Cruz  del  Seibo,  74  miles  northeast  of  Santo 
Domingo,  was  originally  founded  by  Juan  de  Esquivel 
in  1502,  but  being  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1751, 
was  moved  to  its  present  location,  to  the  north  of  its  old 
site.  It  lies  in  the  center  of  a  region  devoted  to  cacao 
planting  and  stockraising.  The  town  has  a  pretty 
church,  and  is  celebrated  in  Dominican  history  as  hav- 
ing instigated  the  reconquest  for  Spain  in  1808  and  as 
having  been  the  home  and  bulwark  of  General  Pedro 
Santana,  who  was  idolized  by  the  Seibanos. 

Salvaleon  de  Higuey,  the  easternmost  city  of  the  Re- 
public, situated  31  miles  southeast  of  Seibo,  was  also 
founded  by  Juan  de  Esquivel  in  the  days  of  Ovando. 
Its  church  contains  a  picture  of  Our  Lady  of  Altagracia, 
to  which  miracles  are  ascribed  and  which  attracts 
pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti. 

Other  towns  are  Hato  Mayor,  18  miles  west  of  Seibo; 
Ramon  Santana,  formerly  called  Guaza,  19  miles  south- 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  263 

west  of  Seibo;  La  Romana,  on  the  coast  25  miles  south 
of  Seibo,  with  rapidly  expanding  sugar  estates;  and 
El  Jovero,  a  hamlet  on  the  coast  near  the  eastern  end  of 
Samana  Bay. 

PROVINCE  OF  SAMANA 

Santa  Barbara  de  Samana,  78  miles  northeast  of  the 
capital  of  the  Republic,  is  built  on  a  cove  on  the  north 
side  of  Samana  Bay.  The  protected  character  of  the 
inlet  made  it  a  favorite  resort  for  pirates  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  beginning  with  1673,  French 
buccaneers  made  several  attempts  to  settle  here  but 
were  driven  out  by  the  Spanish  authorities.  The  town 
was  definitely  settled  in  1756  by  families  from  the 
Canary  Islands.  In  the  town  and  neighborhood  live 
many  English-speaking  negroes,  descendants  of  those 
who  were  brought  from  the  United  States  by  the  Haitian 
President  Boyer  about  1825. 

A  larger  town  is  Sanchez  at  the  western  end  of 
Samana  Bay,  twenty-five  miles  from  the  town  of 
Samana.  In  1886  there  was  here  a  tiny  hamlet,  known 
as  Las  Cahitas,  but  on  becoming  the  terminus  of  the 
railroad  from  La  Vega,  the  name  of  Sanchez,  a  hero  of 
Dominican  independence,  was  given  it,  and  the  town 
rapidly  grew  in  size.  Its  dwellings  are  scattered  over 
two  ridges  of  land  divided  by  a  deep  valley.  On  one  of 
the  ridges  the  houses  are  pretty  one-story  buildings 
with  gardens  in  front.  The  beautiful  grounds  surround- 
ing the  house  of  the  general  manager  of  the  Samana- 
Santiago  Railroad  are  situated  on  a  height  overlooking 
the  sparkling  expanse  of  Samana  Bay  and  give  a  sugges- 
tion of  the  possibilities  of  landscape  gardening  in  Santo 
Domingo.  Colored  families  from  St.  Thomas  and  the 
British  West  Indies  and  descendants  of  American 
negroes  make  up  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 


264  SANTO  DOMINGO 

population,  so  that  more  English  is  heard  here  than 
Spanish. 

On  the  south  side  of  Samana  Bay  is  the  small  village 
of  Sabana  de  la  Mar,  commonly  known  as  Sabana  la 
Mar,  founded  by  Canary  Islanders  in  1756.  There  are 
many  stories  of  pirates'  buried  gold  in  this  region. 

PROVINCE  OF  PACIFICADOR 

San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
is  about  85  miles  northwest  of  Santo  Domingo  City 
and  occupies  the  site  of  a  fort  established  by  Ovando 
in  1504  and  known  as  the  fort  of  La  Magdalena.  It  was 
founded  in  1774  around  a  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Ann 
which  stood  on  a  ranch  called  San  Francisco.  Lying 
in  a  fertile  district  formerly  devoted  to  tobacco  and  now 
one  of  the  chief  cacao  regions  of  the  island,  it  is  a  town 
of  considerable  business.  It  is  also  called  Macoris  del 
Norte,  to  distinguish  it  from  San  Pedro  de  Macoris, 
which  is  called  Macoris  del  Este. 

Villa  Rivas,  on  the  Samana-Santiago  Railroad,  19 
miles  from  Samana  bay,  was  formerly  called  Almacen, 
or  Storehouse,  because  here  was  situated,  before  the 
railroad  was  built,  a  warehouse  for  the  storage  of  mer- 
chandise imported  and  exported  by  way  of  Samana  and 
the  Yuna  river. 

The  other  towns,  all  of  recent  foundation,  are  Matan- 
zas,  a  fishing  village  on  the  edge  of  a  cacao  district  on 
the  northeast  coast,  and  three  villages  named  after 
heroes  of  the  War  of  Restoration:  Cabrera  on  the  coast 
at  Tres  Amarras  point;  Castillo,  8  miles  west  of  Rivas; 
and  Pimentel,  formerly  called  Barbero,  a  station  on  the 
Samana-Santiago  Railroad  and  the  center  of  an  im- 
portant cacao  zone. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  265 

PROVINCE  OF  LA  VEGA 

Conception  de  la  Vega,  capital  of  the  province  and  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  of  the  Royal  Plain,  is 
90  miles  from  Santo  Domingo  City.  The  old  town  of 
Concepcion  de  la  Vega  was  founded  by  Columbus  in 
1495  at  the  foot  of  the  eminence  known  as  Santo  Cerro 
and  at  the  place  of  residence  of  the  Indian  chief  Guar- 
ionex.  It  quickly  attained  such  importance  that  in 
1508  it  was  declared  a  city  and  endowed  with  a  coat  of 
arms,  and  in  the  same  year  a  bishopric  was  erected 
there,  which  was,  however,  in  1527  merged  with  the 
bishopric  of  Santo  Domingo.  An  earthquake  over- 
threw its  fine  buildings  in  1564  and  the  city  was  there- 
upon relocated  at  a  distance  of  three  miles  on  the 
bank  of  the  Camu.  The  site  of  the  old  city  is  now 
private  property  and  is  overgrown  with  tropical  vegeta- 
tion. Moss-grown  foundation  walls  protrude  from  the 
ground;  a  mass  of  brickwork  some  twenty  feet  high  and 
having  the  form  of  a  blockhouse  chimney  remains  of 
the  old  church;  and  part  of  the  circular  tower  erected 
at  the  corner  of  the  fort  of  Columbus,  well  provided 
with  loop-holes  for  muskets,  still  remains  standing. 
In  desultory  excavations  made  at  different  times  small 
objects  such  as  ancient  spurs,  stirrups  and  coins  have 
been  found. 

The  new  city  led  a  languishing  existence  until  it 
became  the  interior  terminus  of  the  Samana-Santiago 
Railroad  which  gave  it  a  great  impetus.  It  is  regularly 
laid  out,  the  streets  are  fairly  wide  and  a  majority  of 
the  houses  are  built  of  brick.  The  city  has  a  pretty 
plaza  laid  out  as  a  garden,  a  new  market  building,  a 
theater,  and  like  every  other  town  of  importance  in 
Santo  Domingo,  a  club.  At  the  entrance  to  the  town 
is  a  bronze  statue  of  Gregorio  Rivas,  a  progressive  mer- 


266  SANTO  DOMINGO 

chant  and  philanthropist  of  this  region,  who  died 
twenty  years  ago. 

The  feature  of  the  city  which  attracts  the  traveler's 
attention  unfavorably  is  the  neglect  of  the  city  streets. 
During  the  dry  season  the  lack  of  pavements  does  not 
matter  but  when  the  rains  come  the  rich  loam  turns  to  a 
deep  black  mud.  Along  most  streets  there  are  narrow 
sidewalks,  but  where  there  are  none,  or  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  cross  to  the  other  side,  the  mode  of  progress  is 
by  hop,  skip  and  jump  from  one  dry  place  to  another — 
the  religion  of  the  virtuous  pedestrian  being  put  to  a 
severe  test  when  after  a  strenuous  jump  he  lands  in  a 
muddy  place  up  to  his  shoe  tops.  At  some  crossings 
thoughtful  storekeepers  lay  a  plank  of  salvation  for  the 
passer-by.  The  city  is  a  great  center  for  cacao,  tobacco 
and  coffee,  and  several  sawmills  are  kept  busy  cutting 
up  pine  logs  from  the  surrounding  hills. 

Cotui,  about  31  miles  southeast  of  La  Vega,  was 
founded  by  order  of  Ovando  in  1505,  being  called  Las 
Minas  in  the  early  days  because  of  the  mines  of  gold, 
copper  and  other  metals  in  the  neighborhood.  Bonao, 
about  26  miles  south  of  La  Vega,  was  founded  by  order 
of  Columbus  in  1496  to  protect  the  mines  in  the  nearby 
mountains  and  was  the  scene  of  Roldan's  revolt  against 
Columbus.  Both  of  these  towns  almost  disappeared 
when  the  colony  declined  and  are  now  humble  villages. 

Other  villages  are  Jarabacoa,  18  miles  southwest  of 
La  Vega;  Constanza,  30  miles  southwest  of  La  Vega  and 
rarely  visited  by  strangers  because  of  its  isolation  among 
the  mountains,  near  the  beautiful  valley  of  Constanza; 
Cevicos,  also  hidden  in  the  mountains,  12  miles  south- 
east of  Cotui;  and  Santo  Cerro,  3  miles  north  of  La 
Vega,  on  a  hill  which  commands  a  magnificent  view  of 
the  Royal  Plain. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  267 

PROVINCE  OF  ESPAILLAT 

Moca,  also  called  Espaillat,  100  miles  northwest  of 
Santo  Domingo  City,  is  a  thriving  city.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  "Moca  massacre"  in  1805,  when  the 
Haitian  general  Christophe,  having  guaranteed  the 
safety  of  the  inhabitants,  induced  them  to  return  from 
their  hiding  places  in  the  mountains  and  assemble  in 
the  church  to  the  number  of  five  hundred  in  order  to 
hold  a  mass  of  thanksgiving,  whereupon  they  were 
massacred  by  the  Haitian  soldiers.  In  more  recent 
history  it  has  been  taken  and  retaken  many  times 
during  revolutions  and  in  1899  was  tne  scene  of  the 
killing  of  President  Heureaux.  Its  houses  are  mostly 
one  story  in  height  and  many  are  built  of  brick,  while 
picturesque  huts  of  the  poor  surround  the  town.  Gut- 
ters have  been  constructed  in  the  principal  streets,  but 
the  possibilities  of  paving  have  by  no  means  been  ex- 
hausted. The  town  sustains  two  churches,  one  on  the 
outskirts,  and  another  with  a  peculiar  square  tower,  on 
the  plaza.  The  inhabitants  take  pride  in  their  pretty 
flower-grown  plaza  and  in  the  elaborate  portal  of  their 
cemetery. 

The  other  town  of  the  province  is  Salcedo,  formerly 
called  Juana  Ntinez,  7  miles  east  of  Moca  in  a  rich 
cacao  district. 

PROVINCE  OF  SANTIAGO 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  Santiago  of  the  Gentlemen, 
115  miles  northwest  of  Santo  Domingo,  was  founded  as 
a  military  station  on  a  bluff  of  the  Yaque  River  about 
1497  by  order  of  Bartholomew  Columbus,  and  settled  in 
1504  by  thirty  knights,  from  which  circumstance  it 
derives  its  name.  It  received  many  settlers  from  the  old 
town  of  Isabela,  was  given  a  coat  of  arms  in  1508, 


268  SANTO  DOMINGO 

reached  a  flourishing  state,  and  was  destroyed  in  1564 
by  the  same  earthquake  which  overthrew  La  Vega. 
Its  inhabitants  then  removed  to  the  present  site,  about 
six  miles  east  of  the  location  of  the  old  city,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  city  was  burned  three 
times  by  the  French  buccaneers  during  their  struggles 
with  the  Spanish  colonial  authorities  and  later  by  the 
Haitian  general  Christophe  on  the  occasion  of  the  re- 
treat of  the  emperor  Dessalines  in  1805.  It  had  again 
attained  importance  when  it  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake  in  1842.  Once  more  it  was  reduced  to 
ashes  in  1863  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  the  Restora- 
tion. To-day  Santiago  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
flourishing  cities  of  the  island  and  has  aspirations  to 
become  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  so  that  an  intense 
rivalry  exists  with  Santo  Domingo.  The  streets  are 
regular  and  clean  and  a  general  repair  has  been  com- 
menced. There  are  important  business  houses  and  well- 
stocked  bazaars  and  the  market  place  is  one  of  the 
busiest  in  the  country. 

The  plaza  in  the  center  of  the  city  has  a  handsome 
garden  established  by  popular  subscription,  and  gay 
with  flowers  and  palms.  Two  churches  are  on  the  plaza, 
the  larger  of  which  has  a  beautiful  altar.  The  remains 
of  President  Heureaux  are  buried  here,  his  resting  place 
being  marked  by  a  marble  slab  with  the  Dominican 
coat  of  arms.  The  government  palace  fronting  on  the 
plaza  is  a  substantial  affair  with  walls  dating  from 
Haitian  times,  and  the  city  hall,  also  fronting  on  the 
plaza,  is  a  fine  structure.  In  the  cemetery  there  is  a 
street  of  beautiful  mausoleums,  the  architecture  of 
several  being  Egyptian  in  style  and  others  bearing 
medallions  or  recumbent  figures  of  the  deceased.  The 
volunteer  fire  corps  of  Santiago  has  a  special  lot  and  a 
pretty  monument. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  269 

San  Jose  de  las  Matas,  24  miles  southwest  of  Santiago, 
is  situated  on  a  high  plain  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains 
and  is  surrounded  by  great  pine  forests.  Its  salubrious 
climate  and  picturesque  environments  make  it  a  favorite 
summer  resort  for  wealthy  families  of  Santiago,  Puerto 
Plata  and  Moca,  and  a  health  resort  for  persons  afflicted 
with  stomach  or  lung  trouble.  Nearby  are  hot  and  cold 
sulphur  springs,  the  beautiful  Inoa  waterfall,  the 
picturesque  confluence  of  the  Amina  and  Inoa  rivers  and 
the  high  Rubio  Peak,  which  commands  one  of  the 
finest  panoramas  in  the  island. 

Other  towns  are  Valverde,  formerly  Mao,  30  miles 
northwest  of  Santiago;  Jdnico,  14  miles  southwest  of 
Santiago,  Esperanza,  27  miles  northwest  of  Santiago; 
and  Canton  Pena,  also  called  Tamboril,  7  miles  east  of 
Santiago  and  having  such  close  social  relations  with  that 
city  as  to  be  regarded  as  a  suburb  of  the  same. 

PROVINCE  OF  PUERTO  PLATA 

Puerto  Plata,  1 50  miles  northwest  of  Santo  Domingo, 
is  the  most  important  port  of  the  north  of  the  Republic. 
Columbus  is  said  to  have  made  the  plans  for  the  streets 
of  the  town;  as  early  as  1499  there  were  settlers  here; 
and  in  1502  the  city  was  formally  founded  by  order  of 
Ovando.  It  enjoyed  prosperity  during  the  first  years 
of  the  colony,  but  in  1543  was  attacked  by  pirates  and 
thereafter  rapidly  went  to  decay.  The  stringent  laws 
which  restricted  the  commerce  of  the  island  to  certain 
ports  of  the  mother  country  encouraged  contraband 
trade  and  the  place  became  the  headquarters  for 
smugglers.  The  government  endeavored  to  stop 
smuggling  in  1606  by  the  brilliant  expedient  of  destroy- 
ing the  town  and  moving  all  the  inhabitants  to  Monte 
Plata,  far  in  the  interior  of  Santo  Domingo  province. 


270  SANTO  DOMINGO 

In  1750  Puerto  Plata  was  populated  anew  and  shared 
with  Monte  Cristi  the  advantage  of  the  law  permitting 
free  trade  for  ten  years.  It  rapidly  grew  in  population 
until  it  became  the  most  important  commercial  point 
of  the  Republic,  and  the  port  of  the  entire  Cibao  region, 
part  of  which  now  finds  an  outlet  at  Sanchez.  It  was 
in  a  flourishing  state  and  had  fine  houses  when  it  was 
totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  1863,  during  the  War  of 
Restoration,  whether  by  the  Spaniards  or  the  Domin- 
icans remains  in  doubt.  Prosperity  again  followed, 
many  foreigners  were  attracted  by  its  commercial 
possibilities  and  to-day  it  is  again  one  of  the  most  thriv- 
ing towns  of  Santo  Domingo. 

The  first  thing  to  attract  the  traveler's  notice  is  the 
excellent  condition  of  the  city  streets.  Though  the 
macadamized  streets  and  the  sidewalks  are  narrow, 
they  are  clean,  well  kept  and  well  lighted  at  night.'  In 
streets,  schools  and  public  squares  the  city  is  in  ad- 
vance of  most  of  the  other  cities  of  the  Republic.  This 
is  attributed  to  a  great  extent  to  the  presence  of  many 
cultured  foreigners  as  well  as  to  the  progressive  natives. 
The  inhabitants  of  Puerto  Plata  boast  that  what 
Puerto  Plata  does  the  rest  of  the  Republic  does.  They 
point  as  an  example  to  their  plaza.  Formerly  the 
plaza  of  Dominican  cities  was  a  bare,  shadeless  tract  of 
ground  in  the  center  of  the  city.  Puerto  Plata  was  the 
first  to  plant  trees,  lay  out  a  garden  and  provide  its 
plaza  with  a  music  stand.  This  plaza  in  the  center  of 
the  town  is  the  oldest  and  prettiest  of  the  city's  three 
public  squares  and  is  now  shaded  by  large,  leafy  trees 
and  embellished  with  beautiful  flowers  and  varicolored 
bushes.  On  Sunday  nights  on  this  plaza  and  on  Thurs- 
day nights  on  one  of  the  others,  band  concerts  attract 
crowds  of  people,  young  and  old,  who  promenade  to  the 
strains  of  the  music.  The  belles  of  the  city  are  very 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  271 

handsome  and  owing  to  the  intermarriage  of  natives 
with  foreigners  from  all  parts  of  the  world  widely 
different  types  of  beauty  are  to  be  observed  at  such 
concerts. 

On  one  side  of  the  principal  plaza  is  the  church,  on 
another  stand  side  by  side  the  theater,  the  government 
building,  where  the  provincial  offices  are  located,  and 
the  city  hall,  on  the  first  floor  of  which  is  a  well-attended 
school.  The  three  principal  clubs  of  the  city  are  also 
located  in  commodious  quarters  fronting  on  this  plaza. 
One  of  these  clubs  counts  among  its  members  most  of 
the  merchants  and  staid  and  elderly  people,  another  is 
the  club  of  the  young  men  and  a  third  is  the  ladies' 
club.  The  ladies'  club  is  open  only  in  the  afternoon 
and  evening,  but  in  the  clubs  frequented  by  gentlemen 
games  of  billiards  may  be  seen  going  on  at  almost  any 
hour  of  the  day. 

The  buildings  of  the  city  are  all  of  modern  date. 
Only  a  few  foundation  walls  near  the  ocean  shore,  and 
the  old  fort,  remain  from  former  days.  The  old  fort  is 
situated  on  the  point  of  land  partly  enclosing  Puerto 
Plata  harbor  and  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
buildings  of  the  present  fort.  It  is  a  large  round  white- 
washed structure  having  the  appearance  of  a  huge 
cheesebox;  its  walls  are  of  enormous  thickness  and  it  is 
now  used  as  a  jail.  In  former  days  the  inhabitants 
had  much  difficulty  in  obtaining  drinking  water,  but 
Puerto  Plata  was  the  first  city  to  be  provided  with  a 
general  system  of  water  works,  having  been  followed 
only  recently  by  Santiago.  The  water  is  brought  from  a 
stream  a  little  over  a  mile  away.  The  ride  there  is  a 
beautiful  one  but  it  goes  to  prove  that  the  movement  for 
good  thoroughfares  has  not  yet  extended  to  the  roads. 
From  all  parts  of  Puerto  Plata  Mt.  Isabel  de  Torres  is 
seen  towering  behind  the  city.  The  view  obtained  from 


272  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  slopes  of  the  mountain,  over  miles  of  shoreline  and  a 
broad  expanse  of  ocean,  is  of  indescribable  grandeur. 

The  traveler  who  visits  Puerto  Plata  carries  away 
with  him  pleasant  memories  of  the  clean  city,  its  com- 
fortable clubs,  its  hospitable  citizens  and  its  beautiful 
surroundings. 

Other  towns  of  the  province  are  Altamira,  18  miles 
southwest  of  Puerto  Plata,  astride  a  hill  rising  in  the 
middle  of  a  valley  of  the  coast  range  of  mountains; 
Blanco^  on  the  coast  20  miles  northwest  of  Puerto  Plata 
and  10  miles  east  of  the  site  of  Isabela,  the  first  city  in 
the  new  world;  and  Bajabonico,  10  miles  southwest  of 
Puerto  Plata,  a  village  called  into  being  by  the  building 
of  the  Central  Dominican  Railroad. 

PROVINCE  OF  MONTE  CRISTI 

San  Fernando  de  Monte  Cristi,  196  miles  northwest  of 
Santo  Domingo  City,  the  capital  of  Monte  Cristi  prov- 
ince, was  founded  during  the  government  of  Ovando 
by  sixty  Spanish  families,  and  after  giving  promise  of 
prosperity  decayed  with  the  rest  of  the  colony.  It  was 
supported  for  a  time  by  a  brisk  contraband  trade  which 
sprang  up  with  the  Dutch  and  other  nations  and  to 
put  a  stop  to  which  the  town  was  destroyed  in  1606  like 
Puerto  Plata  and  the  inhabitants  transferred  to  Monte 
Plata,  to  the  south  of  the  central  mountain  range.  In 
1750  a  royal  dispensation  granted  it  the  right  to  free 
trade  with  all  nations  for  a  period  of  ten  years  and  it 
began  to  attain  prominence  as  a  port,  but  the  wars  with 
the  Haitians,  the  War  of  Restoration  with  the  Spaniards 
and  the  many  civil  wars  have  retarded  its  progress. 
Only  in  the  last  few  years  has  it  received  a  new  impetus. 
The  town  is  built  about  a  mile  from  the  shore,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  tiny  horsecar.  About 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  273 

thirty  houses  are  connected  with  a  private  system  of 
waterworks  which  supplies  water  from,  the  Yaque  river. 
Situated  as  it  is  in  the  arid  region  of  Santo  Domingo  the 
city  bears  much  resemblance  to  some  of  the  western 
towns  of  the  United  States. 

Other  towns  are  Guayubin,  24  miles,  Sabaneta,  36 
miles,  and  Moncion,  46  miles  southeast  of  Monte  Cristi; 
and  Dajabon,  22  miles,  Restauracion,  40  miles,  and 
Copey,  12  miles  southwest  of  Monte  Cristi.  They  are 
all  small  villages.  Dajabon,  founded  towards  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  is  situated  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Massacre  river,  which  constitutes  the 
Haitian  boundary,  and  is  one  of  the  inland  ports  of 
entry.  Restauracion  is  peopled  largely  by  French 
speaking  negroes  from  Haiti. 

PROVINCE  OF  AZUA 

Azua  de  Compostela,  about  83  miles  west  of  Santo 
Domingo  City,  was  founded  by  Diego  de  Velazquez  in 
1504  at  a  point  four  miles  southwest  of  its  present 
location.  It  was  first  called  Compostela  after  a  Galician 
official  who  held  some  property  here,  but  the  Indian 
name  of  the  region  prevailed.  Hernando  Cortez,  later 
the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  settled  here  and  for  some  five 
years  was  the  notary  of  the  town.  At  first  prosperous, 
the  city  soon  suffered  a  serious  decline,  but  was  begin- 
ning to  revive  when  on  August  18,  1751,  it  was  entirely 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  The  inhabitants  then 
transferred  the  town  to  its  present  location  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Via  River.  The  ruins  of  the  old 
city  are  still  visible  near  the  hamlet  called  Pueblo 
Viejo,  Old  Town.  Azua  was  destroyed  by  fire  three 
times  in  the  Haitian  wars:  in  1805,  by  order  of  the 
Haitian  emperor  Dessalines,  in  1844  by  President 


274  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Herard,  and  in  1849  by  President  Soulouque.  To-day 
it  is  the  most  important  town  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  the  Republic.  Situated  in  an  arid  region,  like 
Monte  Cristi,  it  is  similar  to  many  a  town  in  New  Mex- 
ico and  Arizona,  with  hot,  sunny,  shadeless  streets 
beginning  and  ending  in  space,  one  story  houses,  a 
great  plain  of  dark  green  beyond  the  town  and  purple 
mountains  in  the  distance.  The  houses  here  are  of 
wood  or  stone  and  with  thatched  or  zinc  roofs.  There 
is  a  large  new  church,  the  images  in  which  seem  to  be 
very  old  and  do  not  distinguish  themselves  for  beauty. 
The  town  is  about  three  miles  inland  from  the  port,  but 
a  branch  of  a  narrow  gauge  plantation  railroad  con- 
nects the  city  with  the  wharf  and  on  steamer  days  a 
passenger  car  makes  several  trips.  Azua  is  famous 
throughout  Santo  Domingo  for  its  excellent  "dulce  de 
leche,"  a  kind  of  milk  taffy,  which  is  well  made  else- 
where in  the  Republic,  but  is  better  in  Azua  as  it  is 
here  prepared  from  goat's  milk. 

San  Juan  de  la  Maguana,  48  miles  northwest  of  Azua, 
was  founded  in  1504  by  Diego  Velazquez  in  the  beauti- 
ful Maguana  valley  where  the  Indian  chief  Caonabo  had 
his  residence,  became  almost  extinct  in  1606,  but 
revived  in  1764  with  the  establishment  of  new  cattle 
ranches  in  the  vicinity.  During  the  Haitian  wars  it 
was  burned  repeatedly.  Near  the  town  is  a  curious 
relic  of  Indian  times  called  Anacaona's  circus  or  "el 
corral  de  los  Indies,"  consisting  of  large  stones  laid  in  a 
huge  circle,  and  in  the  center  a  strange  cylindrical 
stone,  carved  with  Indian  figures,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  served  as  the  throne  of  the  Indian  queen  Anacaona. 

Las  Matas  de  Farfdn,  64  miles  northwest  of  Azua, 
was  established  in  1780  and  suffered  greatly  during  the 
wars  with  the  Haitians.  Like  the  other  villages  of  the 
Maguana  valley  its  chief  industry  is  stockraising. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  275 

B&nica,  75  miles  northwest  of  Azua,  on  the  Haitian 
frontier,  was  one  of  the  towns  established  by  Diego 
Velazquez  in  1504.  Though  an  important  town  in  the 
early  days  it  decayed,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  was  abandoned  entirely.  During 
Haitian  rule  it  was  reestablished,  but  upon  the  declara- 
tion of  Dominican  independence  was  again  abandoned 
for  fear  of  Haitian  vengeance,  remaining  so  until  the 
War  of  Restoration  during  which  it  was  settled  anew. 

Other  villages  are  San  Jose  de  Ocoa,  also  known  as 
Manielj  18  miles  northeast  of  Azua,  founded  in  1844 
in  a  picturesque  region;  Tiibano,  34  miles  northwest  of 
Azua;  El  Cercado,  12  miles  southwest  of  Las  Matas  de 
Farfan;  and  Comendador,  near  the  Haitian  frontier, 
13  miles  west  of  Las  Matas  de  Farfan,  the  seat  of  one 
of  the  inland  custom-houses. 

Dominican  writers  include  among  the  towns  per- 
taining to  the  Province  of  Azua  those  situated  in  that 
part  of  the  territory  of  the  former  Spanish  colony  which 
is  now  held  by  Haiti.  The  principal  towns  in  this 
territory  are  Lares  de  Guajaba  or  Hincha,  to-day  called 
Hinche,  which  was  founded  in  1504  and  was  the  birth- 
place of  General  Pedro  Santana;  Las  Caobas,  founded 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century;  San  Miguel 
de  la  Atalaya,  to-day  called  St.  Michel,  founded  about 
the  same  time;  and  San  Rafael  de  la  Angostura,  called 
St.  Raphael  by  the  Haitians. 

PROVINCE  OF  BARAHONA 

Barahona,  126  miles  west  of  Santo  Domingo  City, 
became  capital  of  the  Barahona  district  when  a  pro- 
vincial government  was  established  there  in  1881.  It  is 
a  small  town,  which  began  to  be  settled  in  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  suffered  greatly  during 


276  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  Haitian  wars  and  the  revolutions  following  them. 
At  present  its  fame  is  its  fine  coffee. 

Other  towns  are  Enriquillo,  formerly  called  Petitrti 
(Petit  Trou)  on  the  coast  22  miles  south  of  Barahona; 
Neiba,  32  miles  northwest  of  Barahona,  founded  a 
century  ago  and  prevented  from  developing  by  the 
damages  it  sustained  first  in  the  Haitian,  then  in  the 
civil  wars;  and  Duverge,  formerly  called  Las  Damas, 
which  commands  a  fine  view  of  Lake  Enriquillo  with 
Cabras  Island  in  the  distance.  In  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  province  is  the  small  collection  of  huts 
called  Tierra  Nueva,  and  a  few  miles  beyond,  isolated 
in  a  wild  region  on  the  frontier,  the  inland  custom- 
house of  Las  Lajas. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE    REMAINS    OF    COLUMBUS 

Burial  of  Columbus. — Disappearance  of  epitaph. — Removal  of  remains  in 
1795. — Discovery  of  remains  in  1877. — Resting  place  of  Discoverer  of 
America. 

The  greatest  pride  of  the  Dominican  people  is  that 
they  are  the  custodians  of  the  mortal  remains  of  Chris- 
topher Columbus.  The  same  honor  is  claimed  by 
Spain,  but  a  Dominican  would  consider  it  almost  trea- 
sonable to  doubt  the  justice  of  the  Dominican  claim. 
It  is  a  strange  freak  of  fate  that  not  only  should  the 
great  navigator  have  been  denied  in  life  the  rewards 
promised  him,  not  only  should  the  new  world  he  dis- 
covered have  been  given  the  name  of  another,  but  that 
his  very  tomb  is  a  matter  of  controversy.  It  is  admitted 
that  after  his  death  in  Spain  his  remains  were  trans- 
ferred to  Santo  Domingo  City  and  there  deposited  in 
the  cathedral.  In  1795,  when  the  Spanish  colony  of 
Santo  Domingo  was  ceded  to  France,  the  Spaniards 
carried  with  them  to  Cuba  what  they  supposed  were 
the  remains  of  Columbus,  and  these  were  in  1898  taken 
to  Spain,  but  in  the  year  1877  another  casket  was 
brought  to  light  in  the  Santo  Domingo  cathedral,  with 
inscriptions  which  indicated  that  it  contained  the  bones 
of  the  great  Discoverer. 

It  was  the  desire  of  Columbus  to  be  buried  in  Santo 
Domingo,  his  favorite  island.  In  his  will,  executed 
shortly  before  his  death,  he  called  on  his  son  Diego  to 
found,  if  possible,  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Trin- 
ity, "and  if  this  can  be  in  the  Island  of  Espanola,  I 
should  like  to  have  it  there  where  I  invoked  the  Trinity, 


278  SANTO  DOMINGO 

which  is  in  La  Vega,  named  Concepcion."  Columbus 
died  on  May  20,  1506,  in  Valladolid  and  his  body  was 
deposited  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua 
in  that  city.  In  1513,  or  perhaps  before,  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  de 
las  Cuevas  in  Seville,  where  was  also  deposited  the  body 
of  his  son  Diego,  who  died  in  1526.  Diego  Columbus, 
in  his  will  of  the  year  1523,  stated  that  he  had  been  un- 
able to  carry  out  his  father's  wishes,  but  requested  his 
heirs  to  found  in  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo,  inasmuch 
as  La  Vega  was  losing  population,  a  nunnery  dedicated 
to  St.  Clara,  the  sanctuary  of  which  was  to  be  the  burial 
place  of  the  Columbus  family.  His  plans  were  modified 
in  favor  of  a  nobler  mausoleum  and  his  widow,  Maria  de 
Toledo,  in  the  name  of  her  son  Louis  Columbus,  applied 
to  the  king  of  Spain  for  the  sanctuary  of  the  cathedral 
of  Santo  Domingo  as  a  burial  place  for  her  husband, 
his  father  and  his  heirs,  which  grant  the  king  made  in 
1537  and  reiterated  in  1539.  A  difference  having  arisen 
with  the  bishop  of  Santo  Domingo,  who  wished  to  re- 
serve the  higher  platform  of  the  sanctuary  for  the  in- 
terment of  prelates  and  cede  only  the  lower  portion  to 
the  Columbus  family,  the  king  in  1540  again  reiterated 
his  concession  of  the  whole  sanctuary.  According  to 
the  annals  of  the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Seville,  the 
bodies  of  Christopher  Columbus  and  his  son  were  taken 
away  in  1536,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  were  de- 
posited in  the  cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo  in  1540  or 
1541,  after  the  issue  of  the  king's  third  order  and  the 
conclusion  of  the  work  on  the  cathedral.  Where  they 
were  during  the  intervening  four  or  five  years  and  in 
what  year  they  were  brought  to  Santo  Domingo,  is  not 
known.  Las  Casas,  writing  in  1544,  states  that  the  re- 
mains of  the  Admiral  were  at  that  time  buried  in  the 
sanctuary  of  the  cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo.  In  the 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  279 

year  1572  Louis  Columbus,  the  grandson  of  the  Dis- 
coverer, died  in  Oran,  in  Africa,  and  his  remains  were 
taken  to  the  Carthusian  monastery  in  Seville.  It  is 
not  known  when  they  were  brought  to  Santo  Domingo, 
but  the  transfer  probably  took  place  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  early  records  of  the  Santo  Domingo  cathedral 
were  burnt  at  the  time  of  Drake's  invasion  in  1586,  and 
those  since  that  year  have  been  so  damaged  by  the 
ravages  of  tropical  insects  that  little  is  left  of  them. 
They  make  little  and  only  passing  reference  to  the 
tomb  of  Columbus,  and  mention  no  monument  or  in- 
scription whatever.  Juan  de  Castellanos,  in  his  book 
"Varones  Ilustres  de  Indias,"  printed  in  1589,  recites 
a  Latin  epitaph  which  he  says  appeared  near  the  place 
where  lay  the  body  of  Columbus  in  Seville,  but  pretty 
Latin  epitaphs  were  Castellanos'  weakness,  and  it  is 
to  be  feared  that  this  one,  like  others  which  he  dedicated 
to  American  explorers,  was  nothing  more  than  a  fig- 
ment of  his  poetic  imagination.  Two  writers,  Coleti 
and  Alcedo,  who  almost  two  centuries  later  mentioned 
the  same  epitaph  as  marking  the  grave  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo, must  have  copied  from  Castellanos. 

Undoubtedly  there  was  at  first  some  inscription  to 
mark  the  tomb,  but  in  the  course  of  the  years  any  slabs 
with  inscriptions  were  permitted  to  disappear  entirely 
from  the  graves  of  Columbus,  his  son  and  grandson, 
and  the  very  existence  of  their  remains  in  the  cathedral 
became  a  matter  of  tradition.  It  is  possible  that  the 
epitaphs  disappeared  at  some  time  when  the  pavement 
of  the  church  was  renewed,  or  when  damages  inflicted 
by  earthquake  shocks  were  repaired,  or  when  changes 
were  made  in  the  windows  and  doors  about  the  main 
altar,  or  when  the  higher  altar  platform  was  extended 
to  reach  the  desks  on  which  lie  the  Gospels  and  Epistles. 


280  SANTO  DOMINGO 

At  any  such  times  the  slabs  over  the  burial  vaults  may 
have  been  broken  or  laid  aside  and  never  replaced. 
It  is  also  possible  that  they  were  intentionally  removed 
in  order  to  guard  against  profanation  of  the  tombs  by 
enemies  in  time  of  war  or  by  West  Indian  pirates, 
who  captured  and  sacked  stronger  cities  than  Santo 
Domingo.  In  1655  when  an  English  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral William  Penn  appeared  before  the  city  and  landed 
an  army  under  General  Venables,  there  was  great  ex- 
citement and  fear  in  Santo  Domingo,  and  the  arch- 
bishop ordered  that  the  sacred  ornaments  and  vessels 
be  hidden  and  that  "the  sepulchres  be  covered  in  order 
that  no  irreverence  or  profanation  be  committed  against 
them  by  the  heretics,  and  especially  do  I  so  request 
with  reference  to  the  sepulchre  of  the  old  Admiral  which 
is  on  the  gospel  side  of  my  holy  church  and  sanctuary." 
That  other  tombs  were  hidden,  whether  at  this  time  or 
another,  was  shown  in  1879,  when,  on  repairing  the 
flooring  in  the  chapel  of  the  "stone  bishop"  in  the 
cathedral,  the  slab  indicating  the  grave  of  the  Adel- 
antado  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  the  explorer,  was  found 
concealed  under  a  stone,  and  it  was  discovered  that 
the  epitaph  of  Bastidas  on  a  board  which  from  time 
immemorial  had  hung  on  the  wall  of  the  chapel  was 
an  incorrect  copy  of  the  original  graven  on  the  burial 
slab.  From  the  words  of  the  archbishop  it  appears 
possible  that  the  sepulchre  of  Columbus  was  marked 
in  some  way  in  1655,  although  even  then  there  may 
have  been  nothing,  since  the  prelate  saw  fit  to  specify 
the  point  in  the  church  where  the  tomb  was  situated. 
The  first  document  in  which  tradition  appears  in- 
voked for  designating  the  burial  place  is  the  record  of  a 
synod  held  in  1683,  which  contains  the  following  clause: 
"this  Island  having  been  discovered  by  Christopher 
Columbus,  illustrious  and  very  celebrated  throughout 


E   ^ 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  281 

the  world,  whose  bones  repose  in  a  leaden  box  in  the 
sanctuary  next  to  the  pedestal  of  the  main  altar  of  this 
our  cathedral,  with  those  of  his  brother  Louis  Columbus 
which  are  on  the  other  side,  according  to  the  tradition 
of  the  old  people  of  this  Island."  The  synod  and  tradi- 
tion were  not  strong  in  Columbus  genealogy  when  they 
referred  to  Louis  Columbus  as  the  brother  instead  of 
the  grandson  of  the  Discoverer,  and  it  is  noticeable  that 
no  mention  is  made  of  the  son  Diego  Columbus.  It 
may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  the  body  of  Bar- 
tholomew Columbus,  brother  of  the  Admiral,  was  de- 
posited in  the  convent  of  San  Francisco  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo, upon  his  death  in  1514,  and  while  some  writers 
suggest  it  may  have  been  taken  to  Spain,  there  is  noth- 
ing to  indicate  that  it  was  ever  given  sepulture  in  the 
cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo. 

After  the  lapse  of  another  century  tradition  referred 
to  two  sepulchres,  one  of  Christopher  Columbus,  on  the 
right  side  of  the  altar,  the  other  of  his  brother  or  son, 
on  the  left  side  of  the  altar.  Moreau  de  Saint-Mery,  a 
French  diplomat  and  statesman,  who  lived  in  the  French 
colony  of  St.  Domingue  for  some  years  during  the 
decade  of  1780  to  1790,  in  his  book  "Description  de  la 
partie  espagnole  de  1'isle  Saint-Domingue"  states  that, 
being  desirous  of  obtaining  accurate  information  with 
reference  to  the  tomb  of  Columbus,  he  addressed  him- 
self to  Jose  Solano,  an  ex-governor  of  the  colony,  then 
in  command  of  a  fleet  in  the  insular  waters;  that  this 
official  wrote  a  letter  to  his  successor  in  the  governor- 
ship, Isidore  Peralta,  and  that  he  received  the  following 
answer: 

"SANTO  DOMINGO,  March  29,  1783. 

My  very  dear  friend  and  patron: 

I  have  received  the  kind  letter  of  Your  Excellency  of  the 
I3th  of  this  month,  and  did  not  answer  immediately  in  order 


282  SANTO  DOMINGO 

to  have  time  to  ascertain  the  details  it  requests  relative  to 
Christopher  Columbus,  and  also  in  order  to  enjoy  the  satis- 
faction of  serving  Your  Excellency  as  far  as  is  in  my  power 
and  to  permit  Your  Excellency  to  have  the  satisfaction  of 
obliging  the  friend  who  has  asked  for  those  details. 

"With  respect  to  Christopher  Columbus,  although  the  in- 
sects destroy  the  papers  in  this  country  and  have  converted 
whole  archives  into  lace-work,  I  hope  nevertheless  to  remit 
to  Your  Excellency  the  proof  that  the  bones  of  Columbus  are 
in  a  leaden  box,  enclosed  in  a  stone  box  which  is  buried  in 
the  sanctuary  on  the  side  of  the  gospels  and  that  those  of 
Bartholomew  Columbus,  his  brother,  repose  on  the  side  of  the 
epistles  in  the  same  manner  and  under  the  same  precautions. 
Those  of  Christopher  Columbus  were  transported  from 
Seville,  where  they  had  been  deposited  in  the  pantheon  of  the 
dukes  of  Alcala  after  having  been  taken  there  from  Valladolid, 
and  where  they  remained  until  their  transport  here. 

"About  two  months  ago,  in  working  in  the  church,  a  piece 
of  thick  wall  was  thrown  down  and  immediately  recon- 
structed. This  fortuitous  event  was  the  occasion  of  finding 
the  box  of  which  I  have  spoken,  and  which,  although  without 
inscriptions,  was  known,  according  to  a  constant  and  in- 
variable tradition,  to  contain  the  remains  of  Columbus.  In 
addition  I  am  having  a  search  made  to  see  whether  in  the 
church  archives  or  those  of  the  government  some  document 
can  be  found  which  will  furnish  details  on  this  point;  and  the 
canons  have  seen  and  stated  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
bones  were  reduced  to  dust  and  that  bones  of  the  forearm  had 
been  distinguished. 

"  1  send  Your  Excellency  also  a  list  of  all  the  archbishops 
which  this  island  has  had  and  which  is  more  interesting  than 
that  of  its  presidents,  for  I  am  assured  that  the  first  is  com- 
plete, while  in  the  second  there  are  voids  produced  by  the 
insects  of  which  I  have  spoken  and  which  attack  some 
papers  in  preference  to  others. 

"  1  also  refer  to  the  buildings,  the  temples,  the  beauty  of 
the  ruins  and  the  motive  which  determined  the  transfer  of 
this  city  to  the  west  bank  of  the  river  which  constitutes  its 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  283 

port.  But  with  reference  to  the  plan  requested  by  the  note 
there  is  a  real  difficulty,  as  this  is  forbidden  me  as  governor; 
the  superior  understanding  of  Your  Excellency  will  compre- 
hend the  reasons,  etc." 

The  documents  sent  by  Governor  Peralta  were  as 
follows : 

"I,  Jose  Nunez  de  Caceres,  doctor  in  sacred  theology  of 
the  pontifical  and  royal  University  of  the  Angelical  St. 
Thomas  d'Acquino,  dignitary  dean  of  this  holy  metropolitan 
church,  primate  of  the  Indies,  do  certify  that  the  sanctuary 
of  this  holy  cathedral  having  been  torn  down  on  January  30 
last,  for  reconstruction,  there  was  found,  on  the  side  of  the 
platform  where  the  gospels  are  chanted,  and  near  the  door 
where  the  stairs  go  up  to  the  capitular  room,  a  stone  coffer, 
hollow,  of  cubical  form  and  about  a  yard  high,  enclosing  a 
leaden  urn,  a  little  damaged,  which  contained  several  human 
bones.  Several  years  ago,  under  the  same  circumstances 
and  I  so  certify,  there  was  found  on  the  side  of  the  epistles, 
another  similar  stone  box,  and  according  to  the  tradition 
handed  down  by  the  old  men  of  the  country  and  a  chapter  of 
the  synod  of  this  holy  cathedral,  that  on  the  side  of  the  gospels 
is  reputed  to  enclose  the  bones  of  the  Admiral  Christopher 
Columbus  and  that  on  the  side  of  the  epistles,  those  of  his 
brother,  nor  has  it  been  possible  to  verify  whether  they  are 
those  of  his  brother  Bartholomew  or  of  Diego  Columbus,  son 
of  the  admiral.  In  testimony  whereof  I  have  delivered  the 
present  in  Santo  Domingo,  April  20,  1783.  JOSE  NUNEZ  DE 
CACERES." 

An  identical  certificate,  signed  by  Manuel  Sanchez, 
was  also  sent,  as  well  as  a  third  which  reads  as  follows: 

"I,  Pedro  de  Galvez,  schoolmaster,  dignitary  canon  of 
this  cathedral,  primate  of  the  Indies,  do  certify  that  the 
sanctuary  having  been  overthrown  in  order  to  be  recon- 
structed there  was  found  on  the  side  of  the  platform  where 
the  gospels  are  chanted,  a  stone  coffer  with  a  leaden  urn,  a 


284  SANTO  DOMINGO 

little  damaged,  which  contained  human  bones;  and  it  is 
remembered  that  there  is  another  of  the  same  kind  on  the  side 
of  the  epistles;  and  according  to  the  report  of  the  old  men  of 
the  country  and  a  chapter  of  the  synod  of  this  holy  cathedral 
that  on  the  side  of  the  gospels  encloses  the  bones  of  the 
Admiral  Christopher  Columbus,  and  that  on  the  side  of  the 
epistles  those  of  his  brother  Bartholomew.  In  witness 
whereof  I  have  delivered  the  present  on  April  26,  1783. 
PEDRO  DE  GALVEZ." 

The  certificates  were  not  carefully  drafted,  for  in 
speaking  of  the  rebuilding  of  the  sanctuary  only  the  in- 
terior thereof,  probably  only  the  platform,  was  referred 
to,  and  from  a  notarial  document  of  December  21,  1795, 
quoted  below,  it  is  evident  that  by  coffer  was  meant  a 
vault  and  that  the  word  urn  was  used  synonymously 
with  box.  The  papers  give  eloquent  testimony  of  the 
uncertainty  in  which  the  eminent  men's  remains  were 
involved.  Governor  Peralta  died  in  1786  and  was  in- 
terred under  the  altar  platform  near  the  supposed  re- 
mains of  Columbus.  In  1787,  when  Moreau  de  St. 
Mery  endeavored  to  find  the  official  record  of  the  find 
of  1783,  it  had  already  disappeared. 

In  1795  Spain  ceded  to  France  the  entire  Spanish 
part  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  in  evacuating  the  island 
the  Spanish  authorities  determined  to  carry  with  them 
the  remains  of  the  great  Discoverer.  It  is  to  be  assumed 
that  there  were  still  persons  connected  with  the  cathe- 
dral who  could  point  out  the  location  of  the  vault 
accidentally  discovered  twelve  years  before  and  that 
as  tradition  referred  to  only  one  vault  on  that  side  of 
the  altar,  the  remains  contained  therein  were  extracted 
without  further  investigation.  The  description  of  the 
vault  opened  tallies  with  that  of  the  vault  found  in 
1783.  The  document  attesting  the  embarking  of  these 
remains  reads  as  follows: 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  285 

"I,  the  undersigned  clerk  of  the  King,  our  Lord,  in  charge 
of  the  office  of  the  chamber  of  this  Royal  Audiencia,  do 
certify  that  on  the  twentieth  day  of  December  of  the  current 
year,  there  being  in  this  holy  cathedral  the  Commissioner 
Gregorio  Savinon,  perpetual  member  and  dean  of  the  very 
illustrious  municipal  council  of  this  city,  and  in  the  presence 
of  the  most  illustrious  and  reverend  friar  Fernando  Portillo 
y  Torres,  most  worthy  Archbishop  of  this  metropolitan  see; 
of  His  Excellency  Gabriel  de  Aristizabal,  Lieutenant-General 
of  the  royal  navy  of  His  Majesty;  of  Antonio  Cansi,  Brigadier 
in  charge  of  the  fort  of  this  city;  of  Antonio  Barba,  Field- 
marshal  and  Commander  of  Engineers;  of  Ignacio  de  la 
Rocha,  Lieutenant-colonel  and  Sergeant-major  of  this  city, 
and  of  other  persons  of  rank  and  distinction,  a  vault  was 
opened  which  is  in  the  sanctuary  on  the  side  of  the  gospel 
(between)  the  main  wall  and  the  pedestal  of  the  main  altar, 
which  is  one  cubic  yard  in  size,  and  in  the  same  there  were 
found  several  plates  of  lead,  about  one  tercio  in  length,  in- 
dicating that  there  had  been  a  box  of  the  said  metal,  and 
pieces  of  bone  as  of  the  tibia  or  other  parts  of  some  deceased 
person,  and  they  were  collected  in  a  salver  that  was  filled 
with  the  earth,  which  by  the  fragments  of  small  bone  it  con- 
tained and  its  color  could  be  seen  to  belong  to  that  dead 
body;  and  everything  was  placed  in  an  ark  of  gilded  lead  with 
iron  lock,  which  being  closed  its  key  was  delivered  to  the 
said  illustrious  Archbishop,  and  which  box  is  about  half  a 
yard  long  and  wide  and  in  height  something  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  yard,  whereupon  it  was  transferred  to  a  small 
coffin  lined  with  black  velvet,  and  adorned  with  gold  trim- 
mings, and  was  placed  on  a  decent  catafalque. 

"On  the  following  day  with  the  presence  of  the  same  illus- 
trious Archbishop,  His  Excellency  Aristizabal,  the  com- 
munities of  Dominicans,  Franciscans  and  Mercenarians, 
military  and  naval  officers,  and  a  concourse  of  distinguished 
persons,  and  people  of  the  lower  classes,  mass  was  solemnly 
said  and  fasting  enjoined,  whereupon  the  same  illustrious 
Archbishop  preached. 

"On  this  day,  about  half  past  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 


286  SANTO  DOMINGO 

there  came  to  the  holy  cathedral  the  gentlemen  of  the  Royal 
Order,  to  wit,  Joaquin  Garcia,  Fieldmarshal.  President- 
Governor  and  Captain-General  of  this  Island  of  Espanola; 
Jose  Antonio  de  Vrisar,  knight  of  the  royal  and  distinguished 
order  of  Charles  the  Third,  Minister  of  the  royal  and  supreme 
council  of  the  Indies  and  at  present  Regent  of  the  Royal 
Audiencia;  Justices  Pedro  Catani,  dean;  Manuel  Bravo,  like- 
wise knight  of  the  royal  and  distinguished  order  of  Charles 
the  Third,  and  with  honors  and  seniority  in  the  Royal  Audien- 
cia of  Mexico;  Melchor  Joseph  de  Foncerrada  and  Andres 
Alvarez  Calderon,  state's  attorney;  there  being  in  the  cathe- 
dral the  most  illustrious  and  reverend  Archbishop,  His 
Excellency  Gabriel  de  Aristizabal,  the  municipal  council  and 
religious  communities,  and  a  complete  picket  with  draped 
banner,  and  taking  the  wooden  box  covered  with  plush  and 
gold  trimmings,  in  the  interior  of  which  was  the  box  of  gilded 
lead,  which  contained  the  remains  exhumed  on  the  preceding 
day,  the  President  Joaquin  Garcia,  the  Regent  Joseph 
Antonio  de  Vrisar  and  the  Justices,  Dean  Pedro  Catani  and 
Manuel  Bravo  conducted  it  to  a  little  before  the  exit  through 
the  door  of  the  said  holy  church,  where  the  President  and 
Regent  separated,  passed  to  their  respective  places  and  were 
substituted  by  Justice  Foncerrada  and  Calderon,  state's 
attorney,  and  upon  leaving  the  church  it  was  saluted  by  the 
said  picket  with  a  discharge  of  musketry,  and  there  followed 
the  Fieldmarshal  and  Commander  of  Engineers  Antonio 
Barba,  the  Brigadier  and  Commander  of  militia  Joaquin 
Cabrera,  the  Brigadier  and  Commander  of  the  fort  Antonio 
Cansi,  and  the  colonel  of  the  regiment  'Cantabria,'  Caspar 
de  Casasola,  and  thereafter  the  military  officers  alternated 
according  to  their  grade  and  seniority  until  reaching  the  city 
gate  which  leads  to  the  harbor,  where  their  places  were 
taken  by  the  members  of  the  very  illustrious  municipal 
council  of  this  city,  dean  Gregorio  Savinon,  Miguel  Martinez 
Santalices,  Francisco  de  Tapia  and  Francisco  de  Arredondo, 
judge  of  the  rural  court,  and  upon  emerging  from  the  gate 
it  was  placed  upon  a  table  prepared  therefor;  a  response  was 
chanted  and  during  the  same  the  forts  saluted  it  with  fifteen 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  287 

minute  guns,  as  for  an  admiral,  and  one  after  another  took 
the  key  of  the  ark  and  through  the  said  illustrious  Archbishop 
placed  it  in  the  hands  of  His  Excellency  Aristizabal,  stating 
that  they  delivered  the  ark  into  his  possession  subject  to  the 
orders  of  the  Governor  of  Havana  as  a  deposit  until  His 
Majesty  should  determine  what  may  be  his  royal  pleasure, 
to  which  His  Excellency  acceded,  accepting  the  ark  in  the 
manner  stated  and  transferring  it  aboard  the  brigantine 
'Descubridor,'  which,  with  the  other  war-vessels  waiting 
with  insignia  of  mourning,  also  saluted  it  with  fifteen  guns, 
whereupon  this  certificate  was  concluded  and  signed  by  the 
parties. 

"Santo  Domingo,  December  21,  1795.  Joaquin  Garcia. 
Friar  Fernando,  Archbishop  of  Santo  Domingo.  Gabriel  de 
Aristizabal.  Gregorio  Savinon.  Jose  Francisco  Hidalgo." 

The  brief  account  of  the  remains  when  everything 
else  was  related  with  such  detail  leads  to  the  logical 
conclusion  that  there  was  no  epitaph  on  the  vault  and 
no  inscription  on  the  leaden  plates  found  within.  The 
Spanish  judicial  chronicler's  habit  of  minute  description 
would  not  have  permitted  the  omission  of  such  im- 
portant particulars,  if  they  had  existed. 

The  remains  were  transferred  to  Havana  where  their 
reception  was  even  more  solemn  than  their  embarkation 
in  Santo  Domingo.  On  January  19,  1796,  they  were 
landed  amid  the  booming  of  guns,  conducted  in  state 
by  the  civil  and  military  authorities  and  a  large  con- 
course to  the  plaza,  and  deposited  on  a  magnificent  bier 
in  the  shadow  of  the  column  erected  where,  according 
to  tradition,  the  first  mass  was  said  in  Havana  and  the 
first  municipal  council  met.  Here  the  ark  was  formally 
delivered  to  the  Governor  of  Havana,  who  had  it  opened 
and  its  contents  inspected,  whereupon  it  was  again 
closed  and  transferred  with  great  pomp  to  the  cathedral. 
The  key  was  there  delivered  to  the  bishop  and  the 


288  SANTO  DOMINGO 

remains  deposited  in  a  sepulchre  with  suitable  bas- 
reliefs  and  inscriptions.  The  notarial  narrative  of  the 
event  goes  into  the  most  minute  particulars,  but  the 
contents  of  the  ark  are  merely  described  as  "several 
leaden  plates  nearly  a  tercio  in  length,  several  small 
pieces  of  bone  as  of  some  deceased  person,  and  some 
earth  which  seemed  to  be  of  that  body." 

For  over  eighty  years  it  was  generally  accepted  in 
Santo  Domingo,  as  throughout  the  world,  that  the 
bones  of  Columbus  rested  in  the  cathedral  of  Havana. 
There  were,  indeed,  persons  who  handed  down  a  tradi- 
tion that  the  remains  taken  away  by  the  Spaniards 
were  not  those  of  the  great  navigator  and  that  these 
still  remained  under  the  altar  platform  in  the  Santo 
Domingo  cathedral,  but  such  persons  were  very  few  and 
no  attention  was  paid  to  their  allegations.  Some 
Dominicans  even  called  on  the  Spanish  government  to 
return  the  remains  and  let  them  be  laid  to  rest  in 
Dominican  soil  in  accordance  with  the  Discoverer's 
dying  wish.  In  the  meantime  no  one  thought  of  the 
tombs  of  Diego  Columbus  or  Louis  Columbus,  nor  was 
it  remembered  that  they  were  buried  in  the  cathedral. 

In  the  year  1877  extensive  repairs  were  undertaken 
in  the  cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo.  The  worn  brick 
flooring  was  to  be  replaced  with  marble  squares,  the 
old  choir  was  to  be  torn  down  and  a  choir  established 
elsewhere  in  the  church,  and  the  altar  platform  was  to 
be  extended  into  the  church  proper  and  reduced  in 
height.  Shortly  after  the  work  had  begun,  a  heavy 
bronze  image  kept  in  the  vestry — which  adjoined  the 
sanctuary  on  the  side  opposite  that  where  the  remains 
were  exhumecj  in  1795 — was,  on  May  14,  1877,  placed 
in  a  doorway  long  closed  leading  to  the  sanctuary.  In 
doing  so  it  was  noticed  that  a  hollow  sound  came  from 
the  wall  adjoining  and  in  order  to  ascertain  the  cause  a 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  289 

small  opening  was  made  in  the  wall  about  a  yard  above 
the  floor.  It  was  then  seen  that  there  was  a  small  vault 
under  the  altar  platform  of  the  church,  and  that  the 
vault  contained  a  metal  box  with  human  remains. 
Canon  Billini,  in  charge  of  the  cathedral,  immediately 
ordered  that  the  opening  be  closed  until  the  return  of 
the  bishop  from  a  pastoral  visit  to  the  Cibao.  The  hole 
was  hidden  behind  a  curtain  and  no  immediate  atten- 
tion given  to  it.  Towards  the  end  of  June  Mr.  Carlos 
Nouel,  a  friend  of  Canon  Billini,  obtained  permission  to 
look  in  at  the  box  and  deciphered  a  rude  inscription 
reading,  "El  Almirante  D.  Luis  Colon,  Duque  de 
Veragua,  Marques  de — "  "The  Admiral  Don  Louis 
Columbus,  Duke  of  Veragua,  Marquis  of — ."  The  last 
word  was  missing  because  of  a  hole  in  the  corroded 
leaden  plate,  but  was  supposed  to  be  "Jamaica."  At 
this  time  the  box  was  broken,  because  several  days 
before  in  placing  a  scaffold  in  the  church  one  of  the  posts 
had  been  located  over  the  box  and  had  broken  through. 
The  persons  who  afterwards  sought  to  draw  out  the 
box  pulled  to  overcome  the  obstacle  and  tore  the  weak 
plates  apart  entirely. 

The  bishop  returned  on  August  18,  1877,  and  being 
informed  of  what  had  happened,  on  September  I  invited 
the  Cabinet  officers,  the  consular  corps  and  a  number  of 
civil  and  military  authorities  and  private  persons  to 
witness  the  removal  of  the  remains  of  Louis  Columbus. 
To  the  chagrin  of  the  bishop  and  canon,  it  was  found 
that  the  plate  with  the  inscription  had  been  stolen. 
Probably  shamed  by  ever  increasing  popular  indigna- 
tion, the  grave-robber  anonymously  returned  it  on 
December  14,  1879,  by  leaving  it  in  the  cathedral  door 
in  a  package  addressed  to  the  archbishop.  The  other 
plates  with  the  earth  and  pieces  of  bone  were  carefully 
collected. 


290 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


_LL 


w 


X 
S 


SANCTUARY  OF  CATHEDRAL  IN  SEPTEMBER,  1877 
(Scale:  i  centimeter  =  i  meter) 

I.  Vault  containing  remains  of  Christopher  Colombus.  2,  Vault  opened  by 
Spaniards  in  1795.  3,  Vault  containing  remains  of  Louis  Columbus. 
4,  Pedestal  of  main  altar.  5,  Door  leading  to  vestry.  6,  Door  leading 
to  capitular  room.  7,  Location  of  containing  wall  of  old  altar  platform, 
as  it  existed  in  1540.  8,  Location  of  stairs  which  in  1540  led  up  to  altar 
platform.  9,  Tribune  of  the  Gospels.  10,  Tribune  of  the  Epistles. 
n,  Steps  of  altar  platform.  12,  Grave  of  Juan  Sanchez  Ramirez.  Isi- 
dore Peralta  tiad  also  been  buried  at  this  spot. 

The  unexpected  finding  of  the  long  forgotten  remains 
of  the  grandson  of  the  Admiral  recalled  the  tradi^n 
that  the  Discoverer's  body  still  remained  in  Santo 
Domingo,  and  several  gentlemen,  among  them  the 
Italian  consul,  requested  the  bishop  to  take  advantage 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  291 

of  the  repairing  of  the  church  for  a  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  the  altar  platform  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  it 
contained  any  other  notable  graves.  The  bishop  gave 
his  consent,  and  the  investigation  commenced  on 
September  8,  under  the  direction  of  Canon  Billini. 
Digging  was  begun  near  the  door  of  the  capitular  room 
and  in  a  short  time  an  unmarked  grave  was  found  con- 
taining human  remains  and  military  insignia.  It  was 
proven  by  witnesses  that  they  were  the  remains  of 
Juan  Sanchez  Ramirez,  Captain-General  of  Santo 
Domingo,  who  died  on  February  12,  1811,  and  was 
buried  in  the  same  place  where  had  been  the  grave  of 
General  Isidore  Peralta.  A  narrow  wall  was  then  en- 
countered which  was  afterwards  found  to  be  the  con- 
taining wall  of  the  ancient  altar  platform.  On  the  ninth, 
a  Sunday,  the  work  went  on  during  the  morning  with 
the  permission  of  the  bishop.  An  excavation  was  made 
at  the  place  where,  according  to  tradition,  the  remains 
taken  to  Havana  had  lain  and  soon  a  small  vault  was 
discovered  quite  empty.  It  was  evidently  the  vault 
opened  by  the  Spaniards  in  1795.  The  examination 
was  continued  between  this  vault  and  the  main  altar, 
but  nothing  new  was  encountered,  whereupon  the 
work  was  left  to  be  resumed  on  the  following  day, 
rather  with  the  hope  of  finding  something  of  Diego 
Columbus,  for  the  empty  vault  seemed  to  show  that 
the  remains  of  Christopher  Columbus  were  really  re- 
moved in  1795. 

The  excavations  continued  on  September  10,  1877, 
between  the  empty  vault  and  the  wall.  A  large  stone 
was  found,  and  a  piece  broken  off,  disclosing  another 
vault  containing  what  appeared  to  be  a  square  box. 
The  bishop  and  the  Italian  consul  were  sent  for  imme- 
diately and  upon  their  arrival  the  orifice  was  slightly 
enlarged  and  a  metal  box  became  clearly  visible.  It  was 


292  SANTO  DOMINGO 

covered  with  the  dust  of  centuries,  but  an  inscription  was 
seen,  in  which  abbreviations  of  the  words  "First  Ad- 
miral" could  faintly  be  distinguished.  The  work  was 
stopped  at  once,  the  doors  of  the  cathedral  were  locked 
and  all  the  principal  persons  of  the  city  invited  to  at- 
tend the  further  investigation  of  the  vault's  contents. 
The  report  of  the  find  rapidly  spread  through  the  city, 
though  distorted  in  some  quarters,  for  one  of  the  work- 
men hearing  the  bishop's  joyful  exclamation,  "Oh,  what 
a  treasure!"  conceived  the  idea  that  the  box  was  full  of 
gold  pieces  and  so  informed  the  people  that  gathered 
outside. 

The  formal  opening  of  the  vault  on  the  afternoon  of 
that  day  and  the  examination  of  its  contents  are 
minutely  described  in  the  notarial  document  drawn 
up  on  the  occasion: 

"In  the  City  of  Santo  Domingo  on  the  tenth  of  September 
of  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  seventy-seven.  At  four 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  upon  invitation  of  the  most  illustrious 
and  reverend  Doctor  Friar  Roque  Cocchia,  Bishop  of  Orope, 
Vicar  and  Apostolic  Delegate  of  the  Holy  See  in  the  Re- 
publics of  Santo  Domingo,  Venezuela  and  Haiti,  assisted 
by  presbyter  Friar  Bernardino  d'Emilia,  secretary  of  the 
bishopric,  by  the  honorary  penitentiary  canon,  presbyter 
Francisco  Javier  Billini,  rector  and  founder  of  the  College 
of  San  Luis  Gonzaga  and  of  the  charity  asylum,  apostolic 
missionary  and  acting  curate  of  the  holy  cathedral,  and  by 
presbyter  Eliseo  J'Andoli,  assistant  curate  of  the  same,  there 
met  in  the  holy  cathedral  General  Marcos  A.  Cabral,  Minis- 
ter of  the  Interior  and  Police;  Licentiate  Felipe  Davila  Fer- 
nandez de  Castro,  Minister  of  Foreign  Relations;  Joaquin 
Montolio,  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction;  General 
Manuel  A.  Caceres,  Minister  of  Finance  and  Commerce;  and 
General  Valentin  Ramirez  Baez,  Minister  of  War  and  the 
Navy;  and  the  citizens  General  Braulio  Alvarez,  Civil  and 
Military  Governor  of  the  Province  of  the  Capital,  assisted 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  293 

by  his  secretary  Pedro  Maria  Gautier;  the  honorable  mem- 
bers of  the  illustrious  municipal  council  of  this  capital,  citizen 
Juan  de  la  C.  Alfonseca,  president,  and  citizens  Felix  Baez, 
Juan  Bautista  Paradas,  Pedro  Mota,  Manuel  Maria  Cabral 
and  Jose  Maria  Bonetti,  members;  General  Francisco  Ungria 
Chala,  military  commandant  of  this  city;  citizens  Felix 
Mariano  Lluveres,  president  of  the  legislative  chamber  and 
Francisco  Javier  Machado,  deputy  to  the  same  chamber;  the 
members  of  the  consular  corps  accredited  to  the  Republic, 
Messrs.  Miguel  Pou,  Consul  of  H.  M.  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, Luis  Cambiaso,  Consul  of  H.  M.  the  King  of  Italy, 
Jose  Manuel  Echeverri,  Consul  of  H.  Catholic  M.  the  King  of 
Spain,  Aubin  Defougerais,  Consul  of  the  French  Republic, 
Paul  Jones,  Consul  of  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
Jose  Martin  Leyba,  Consul  of  H.  M.  the  King  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  David  Coen,  Consul  of  H.  M.  the  Queen  of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain;  the  citizens  licentiates  in 
medicine  and  surgery  Marcos  Antonio  Gomez  and  Jose  de 
Jesus  Brenes;  the  civil  engineer  Jesus  Maria  Castillo,  director 
of  the  work  in  this  cathedral;  the  chief  sexton  of  the  same, 
Jesus  Maria  Troncoso,  and  the  undersigned  notaries  public, 
Pedro  Nolasco  Polanco,  Mariano  Montolio  and  Leonardo 
Delmonte  i  Aponte,  the  first  also  being  the  acting  notary  of 
the  curacy  and  the  second  the  titular  notary  of  the  municipal 
council  of  this  capital. 

"The  most  illustrious  Bishop,  in  the  presence  of  the  gentle- 
men above  designated  and  of  a  numerous  concourse,  declares: 
that  the  holy  cathedral  being  undergoing  repairs  under  the 
direction  of  the  reverend  Canon  Francisco  Javier  Billini,  and 
it  having  come  to  his  notice  that  according  to  tradition  and 
notwithstanding  what  appears  from  public  documents  with 
reference  to  the  transfer  of  the  remains  of  the  Admiral 
Christopher  Columbus  to  the  city  of  Havana  in  the  year 
seventeen  hundred  and  ninety-five  the  said  remains  might 
still  be  in  the  place  where  they  had  been  deposited  and  as 
such  place  the  right  side  of  the  sanctuary  was  designated, 
under  the  spot  occupied  by  the  archbishop's  chair;  with  the 
desire  of  clearing  up  the  matters  which  tradition  had  carried 


294  SANTO  DOMINGO 

to  him,  he  authorized  the  reverend  Canon  Billini,  upon  his 
request,  to  make  the  necessary  explorations;  and  as  the  latter 
was  doing  so  with  two  workmen  on  the  morning  of  this  day, 
he  discovered  at  a  depth  of  two  palms,  more  or  less,  the 
beginning  of  a  vault  which  permitted  part  of  a  metal  box  to 
be  seen;  that  immediately  the  said  Canon  Billini  ordered  the 
chief  sexton,  Jesus  Maria  Troncoso,  to  go  to  the  archiepisco- 
pal  palace  and  inform  His  Grace  of  the  result  of  the  investiga- 
tions, also  informing  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  requesting 
their  presence  without  loss  of  time;  that  immediately  His 
Grace  proceeded  to  the  holy  cathedral  where  he  found  Jesus 
Maria  Castillo,  civil  engineer,  in  charge  of  the  repairs  to  this 
temple  and  two  workmen  who,  in  company  with  Canon 
Billini,  guarded  the  small  excavation  which  had  been  made, 
and  at  the  same  time  Luis  Cambiaso  arrived,  called  by  the 
said  Canon  Billini;  that  having  personally  made  certain  of  the 
existence  of  the  vault  as  well  as  that  it  contained  the  box  to 
which  Canon  Billini  made  reference  and  an  inscription  being 
discovered  on  the  upper  part  of  what  appeared  to  be  the  lid, 
he  ordered  that  things  be  left  as  they  were  and  that  the  doors 
of  the  temple  be  closed,  the  keys  being  confided  to  the  rev- 
erend Canon  Billini;  proposing  to  invite,  as  he  did  invite, 
His  Excellency  the  great  citizen,  President  of  the  Republic, 
General  Buenaventura  Baez,  his  Cabinet,  the  consular  corps 
and  the  other  civil  and  military  authorities  named  in  the 
beginning  of  this  certificate,  in  order  to  proceed  with  all  due 
solemnity  to  the  extraction  of  the  box  and  give  all  required 
authenticity  to  the  result  of  the  investigation;  and  having 
advised  the  authorities,  by  their  order  municipal  police- 
men were  stationed  at  each  one  of  the  closed  doors  of  the 
temple. 

"His  Grace,  stationed  in  the  sanctuary,  near  the  started 
excavation  and  surrounded  by  the  authorities  above  men- 
tioned and  a  very  numerous  concourse,  all  the  doors  of  the 
temple  having  been  opened,  had  the  excavation  continued, 
and  a  slab  was  removed,  permitting  the  raising  of  the  box, 
which  was  taken  and  shown  by  His  Grace  and  found  to  be  of 
lead.  The  said  box  was  exhibited  to  all  the  authorities  con- 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS 


295 


voked,  and  thereupon  was  carried  in  procession  through  the 
interior  of  the  temple  and  shown  to  the  people. 

"The  pulpit  of  the  left  nave  of  the  temple  being  occupied 
by  His  Grace,  by  the  reverend  Canon  Billini,  who  carried  the 
box,  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  the  president  of  the  munic- 
ipal council  and  two  of  the  notaries  public  who  sign  this 
document:  His  Grace  opened  the  box  and  exhibited  to  the 


Lead  box  found  in  1877  with  remains  of  Columbus 

people  a  part  of  the  remains  it  encloses;  he  also  read  the 
several  inscriptions  on  the  box,  which  prove  beyond  con- 
troversy that  the  remains  are  really  and  in  fact  those  of  the 
illustrious  Genovese,  the  great  Admiral  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, Discoverer  of  America.  The  truth  of  the  matter  being 
irrefutably  ascertained,  a  salute  of  twenty-one  guns,  fired 
by  the  artillery  of  the  fort,  a  general  ringing  of  bells  and 


296  SANTO  DOMINGO 

strains  of  music  from  the  military  band,  announced  the 
happy  and  memorable  event  to  the  city. 

"Immediately  the  authorities  convoked  met  in  the  vestry 
of  the  temple  and  proceeded  in  the  presence  of  the  under- 
signed notaries  public,  who  certify  thereto,  to  an  examination 
and  expert  investigation  of  the  box  and  its  contents;  the  result 
of  the  examination  being  that  the  said  box  is  of  lead,  has 
hinges  and  measures  forty-two  centimeters  in  length,  twenty- 
one  centimeters  in  depth  and  twenty  and  a  half  in  width; 
containing  the  following  inscriptions:  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  lid  'D.  de  la  A.  Per.  Ate/— On  the  left  headboard  'C.' 
On  the  front  side  'C' — On  the  right  headboard  'A.'  On 
raising  the  lid  the  following  inscription  was  found  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  same  carved  in  German  Gothic  characters: 
'  Illtre.  y  Esdo.  Varon  Dn.  Criftobal  Colon,'  and  in  the 
said  box  human  remains  which  on  examination  by  the  licen- 
tiate of  equal  class  Jose  de  Jesus  Brenes  are  found  to  be:  A 
femur  deteriorated  in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck,  between 
the  great  trochanter  and  its  head.  A  fibula  in  its  natural 
state.  A  radius  also  complete.  The  os  sacrum  in  bad  condi- 
tion. The  coccyx.  Two  lumbar  vertabrae.  One  cervical 
and  two  dorsal  vertabrae.  Two  calcanea*.  One  bone  of  the 
metacarpus.  Another  of  the  metatarsus.  A  fragment  of 
the  frontal  or  coronal  bone,  containing  half  of  an  orbital 
cavity.  A  middle  third  of  the  tibia.  Two  more  fragments 
of  tibia.  Two  astragoli.  One  upper  portion  of  shoulder- 
blade.  One  fragment  of  the  lower  jawbone.  One  half  of  an 
os  humeri,  the  whole  constituting  thirteen  small  and  twenty- 
eight  large  fragments,  there  being  others  reduced  to  dust. 

"In  addition  a  leaden  ball  weighing  about  an  ounce,  more 
or  less,  was  found  and  two  small  screws  belonging  to  the  box. 

"The  examination  mentioned  having  been  terminated,  the 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  and  the  illustrious  munic- 
ipal council  resolved  to  close  and  seal  the  box  with  their 
respective  seals  and  deposit  it  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  church 
of  Regina  Angelorum,  under  the  responsibility  of  the  afore- 
said penitentiary  canon  Francisco  Javier  Billini,  until  other- 
wise determined;  His  Grace,  the  Ministers,  the  consuls  and 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  297 

the  undersigned  notaries  immediately  proceeding  to  affix 
their  seals;  and  finally  they  determined  to  transfer  the  box 
in  triumph  to  the  said  church  of  Regina  Angelorum,  accom- 
panied by  the  veteran  troops  of  the  capital,  batteries  of 
artillery,  music,  and  whatever  else  might  give  impressiveness 
and  splendor  to  so  solemn  an  act,  for  which  the  town  was 
prepared  as  was  noted  from  the  great  multitude  which 
filled  the  temple  and  the  cathedral  plaza,  to  which  we  certify, 
as  we  do  also  that  the  present  was  signed  by  the  gentlemen 
above  named  and  other  distinguished  persons. 

"Friar  Roque  Cocchia,  of  the  Order  of  Capuchins,  Bishop 
of  Orope,  Apostolic  Delegate  to  Santo  Domingo,  Haiti  and 
Venezuela,  Apostolic  Vicar  in  Santo  Domingo — Friar  Bernar- 
dino d'Emilia,  Capuchin,  Secretary  of  His  Excellency  the 
Apostolic  Delegate  and  Vicar — Francisco  X.  Billini — Eliseo 
J'Andoli,  assistant  curate  of  the  cathedral — Marcos  A. 
Cabral,  Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Police — Felipe  Davila 
Fernandez  de  Castro,  Minister  of  Foreign  Relations — Joaquin 
Montolio,  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction — M.  A. 
Caceres,  Minister  of  Finance  and  Commerce — Valentin 
Ramirez  Baez,  Minister  of  War  and  the  Navy — Braulio 
Alvarez,  Governor  of  the  Province — Pedro  Ma.  Gautier, 
Secretary — Juan  de  la  C.  Alfonseca,  President  of  the  Munic- 
ipal council — Members,  Felix  Baez — Juan  Bautista  Par- 
adas — Manuel  Ma.  Cabral  B. — P.  Mota — Jose  M.  Bonetti — 
Francisco  Ungria  Chala,  Commandant  of  Arms — Felix 
Mariano  Lluveres,  President  of  the  Legislative  Chamber — 
Francisco  Javier  Machado,  Deputy  of  the  Legislative  Cham- 
ber— The  Consul  of  Spain,  Jose  Manuel  Echeverri — Luigi 
Cambiaso,  R.  Consul  of  H.  M.  the  King  of  Italy — Miguel 
Pou,  Consul  of  the  German  Empire — Paul  Jones,  United 
States  Consul — D.  Coen,  British  Vice-Consul — J.  M.  Leyba, 
Consul  of  the  Netherlands — A.  Aubin  Defougerais,  Vice- 
Consul  of  France — Jesus  Ma.  Castillo,  Civil  Engineer — 
M.  A.  Gomez,  Licentiate  in  Medicine  and  Surgery — J.  J. 
Brenes,  Licentiate  in  Medicine  and  Surgery — The  chief 
sexton,  Jesus  Ma.  Troncoso — A.  Licairac — M.  M.  Santa- 
maria — Domingo  Rodriguez — Manuel  de  Jesus  Garcia — 


298  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Enrique  Peinado  —  Federico  Polanco  —  Lugardis  Olivo  —  P. 
Mr.  Consuegra  —  Eujenio  de  Marchena  —  Valentin  Ramirez, 
Jr.  —  F.  Perdomo  —  Joaquin  Ramirez  Morales  —  Amable  Da- 
miron  —  Jaime  Ratto  —  Pedro  N.  Polanco,  Notary  Public  — 
Leonardo  Delmonte  i  Aponte,  Notary  Public  —  Mariano 
Montolio,  Notary  Public." 

The  vault  so  opened  was  a  little  larger  than  that 
opened  in  1795,  and  separated  therefrom  by  a  six-inch 
wall.  The  leaden  box  was  of  rude  construction,  dented 
and  much  oxydized,  the  plates  being  a  little  thicker 
than  those  of  the  casket  of  Louis  Columbus.  The 
inscription  on  the  outside  of  the  lid  "D.  de  la  A.  Per. 
Ate."  was  taken  to  mean  "Descubridor  de  la  America, 


>  „ 

ZX  A  /«/  J  /. 

Inscription  on  lid  of  lead  box.     (2/6  actual  size) 

Primer  Almirante"  —  "Discoverer  of  America,  First 
Admiral."  The  inscription  on  the  inner  side  of  the  lid, 
without  contractions,  was:  "Ilustre  y  Esclarecido 
Varon  Don  Cristobal  Colon"  —  "Illustrious  and  noble 


>* 

Inscription  on  inner  side  of  lid.     (2/5  actual  size)      , 

man,  Christopher  Columbus."  The  letters  "C  C  A" 
were  interpreted  as  signifying  "Cristobal  Colon, 
Almirante" — "Christopher  Columbus,  Admiral." 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  299 

On  January  3,  1878,  a  more  minute  examination  of 
the  remains  was  made  at  the  request  of  the  Spanish 
Academy  of  History  and  in  the  dust  at  the  bottom  of 
the  box  was  found  a  small  silver  plate  with  two  holes 
by  which  it  had  evidently  been  screwed  with  the  two 
screws  found  at  the  first  examination  to  some  wooden 
board  or  receptacle.  All  vestige  of  wood  had  disap- 
peared, either  through  decay  or  perhaps  through  de- 
struction by  insects,  for  on  the  walls  of  the  vault  are 
faint  traces  of  ancient  tracks  made  by  the  comejen  or 
wood-eating  ant.  On  one  side  of  the  plate  was  engraved 
in  rude  letters:  "Ua.  pte.  de  los  rtos.  del  pmer.  Alte. 
D.  Cristoval  Colon  Des.,"  which  is  read  as  meaning 


Obverse  side  of  silver  plate  (Enlarged  */2o) 

"Ultima  parte  de  los  restos  del  primer  Almirante,  Don 
Cristoval  Colon,  Descubridor" — "Last  part  of  the 
remains  of  the  first  Admiral,  Don  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, Discoverer."  On  the  reverse  side  are  the  words 
"Cristoval  Colon"  and  several  letters  which  indicate 
that  the  inscription  "Ua.  pte."  etc.,  was  begun  here  but 
was  stopped,  perhaps  because  there  was  not  sufficient 
room. 

The  small  lead  ball,  similar  to  a  musket-ball,  found 
in  the  box,  has  been  the  subject  of  much  comment.  It 
is  not  known  that  Columbus  was  ever  wounded,  though 


300  SANTO  DOMINGO 

it  is  true  that  of  many  years  of  his  life  we  have  little 
information.  Some  writers  make  deductions  from  an 
equivocal  sentence  contained  in  a  letter  written  by 
him  to  the  rulers  of  Spain  on  his  fourth  voyage,  in  which 
he  refers  to  his  difficulties  off"  the  coast  of  Central 
America  and  says:  "There  the  wound  of  my  trouble 
opened."  Others  refer  to  an  obscure  sentence  of  Las 
Casas,  but  others  believe  that  the  ball  was  dropped  in 
the  box  by  accident,  either  when  the  box  was  prepared 
for  the  vault  or  at  some  time  when  in  the  course  of  the 
centuries  the  vault  may  have  been  casually  opened  as 


Reverse  side  of  silver  plate.     (Enlarged  1/20) 

was  the  adjoining  vault  in  1783.  At  what  time  the 
remains  were  enclosed  in  this  box  and  the  inscriptions 
placed  on  the  same  it  is  impossible  to  determine;  it 
may  have  been  in  Seville,  or  in  the  early  days  in  Santo 
Domingo,  or  at  a  later  date,  perhaps  when  the  epitaphs 
were  removed  from  the  vault. 

The  remainder  of  the  old  altar  platform  was  carefully 
examined  but  no  other  vaults  or  remains  were  dis- 
covered. With  reference  to  the  bones  "of  a  deceased 
person"  transferred  in  1795  a  logical  conclusion  can  be 
reached:  Christopher  Columbus,  his  son  Diego,  and  his 
grandson  Louis  were  all  buried  in  the  Santo  Domingo 
cathedral;  the  caskets,  with  inscriptions,  of  the  first  and 


THE  REMAINS  OF  COLUMBUS  301 

third  were  found  in  1877  and  there  are  no  other  vaults 
under  the  old  altar  platform;  therefore  the  remains 
taken  away  in  1795  with  pieces  of  a  casket  without 
inscription,  or  the  inscription  of  which  had  become 
illegible,  were  most  probably  those  of  Diego  Columbus. 

Santo  Domingo  went  wild  with  joy  over  the  dis- 
covery. It  was  determined  to  erect  a  suitable  monu- 
ment for  the  remains  with  funds  raised  by  private 
subscription  and  by  a  half  per  cent,  surtax  on  imports. 
A  beautiful  marble  memorial  costing  $40,000,  guarded 
by  bronze  lions  and  adorned  with  bronze  relief  work 
depicting  scenes  from  the  life  of  Columbus,  was  de- 
signed by  two  Spanish  sculptors.  The  first  intention 
was  to  place  the  same  in  a  mausoleum  specially  built 
for  the  purpose,  but  it  was  finally  erected  in  the  nave  of 
the  cathedral  near  the  main  door.  A  richly  ornamented 
bronze  box  placed  in  the  monument  contains  the  leaden 
casket  and  the  remains.  Once  a  year  on  the  anniversary 
of  the  find,  the  box  is  opened  and  the  public  permitted 
to  gaze  on  its  contents. 

The  Spanish  authorities  would  never  admit  the 
authenticity  of  the  remains  found  in  1877,  and  the 
Spanish  consul  in  Santo  Domingo  was  bitterly  crit- 
icized for  affixing  his  signature  to  the  notarial  document 
relating  the  discovery.  The  Spaniards  continue  to 
claim  that  the  true  remains  of  the  Discoverer  are  those 
which  were  transferred  to  Havana.  Upon  the  evacua- 
tion of  Cuba  by  Spain  in  1898  these  remains  were 
solemnly  removed  and  taken  to  Spain,  where  they  now 
rest  in  the  cathedral  of  Seville.  Many  investigations 
have  been  made  from  different  sources  and  the  majority 
of  investigators  report  in  favor  of  the  Dominican  con- 
tention, especially  when  they  have  personally  visited 
Santo  Domingo.  The  Spanish  writers  present  no  proof 
that  the  remains  taken  to  Havana  in  1795  were  those  of 


302  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Christopher  Columbus,  but  limit  themselves  to  attack- 
ing the  find  of  1877.  The  insinuations  and  accusations, 
without  corroborating  facts,  prove  nothing  but  the 
temper  of  their  authors.  All  criticisms  have  been 
refuted  by  showing  that  even  supposing  the  box  to  date 
from  the  year  1540,  other  and  indubitable  inscriptions 
of  that  year  have  the  same  style  of  letters,  abbrevia- 
tions, spelling  and  words  as  those  criticized.  Further 
the  appearance  of  the  box  and  vault  of  1877,  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  their  discovery,  and  the  irre- 
proachable character  of  the  Apostolic  Delegate,  of 
Canon  Billini  and  of  others  connected  with  that  event 
preclude  all  suspicion  of  fraud. 

On  the  whole,  the  weight  of  evidence  is  strongly  in 
favor  of  the  Dominican  contention.  It  seems  that,  in 
spite  of  the  acts  of  men,  fate  has  permitted  the  remains 
of  the  Discoverer  of  America  to  repose  in  the  principal 
cathedral  of  the  island  he  loved. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

GOVERNMENT 

Form  of  government. — Constitutions. — Presidents. — Election. — Powers. — 
Executive  secretaries. — Land  and  sea  forces. — Congress. — Local  sub- 
divisions.— Provincial  governors. — Communal  governments. 

From  the  date  of  the  declaration  of  independence, 
February  27,  1844,  down  to  the  present  time,  with  the 
exception  only  of  a  portion  of  the  period  of  Spanish 
occupation  of  1861  to  1865,  Santo  Domingo  has  re- 
mained in  form  at  least,  a  republic.  Herein  it  con- 
trasts with  its  neighbor  Haiti,  which  has  experienced 
several  monarchies.  Thus  Dessalines  proclaimed  him- 
self emperor  in  1804,  Christophe  assumed  the  title  of 
king  in  1810  and  Soulouque  had  himself  declared  em- 
peror in  1849;  and  the  latter  two  instituted  pompous 
black  nobilities.  And  though  the  Cibao  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo and  the  region  south  of  the  Central  Cordillera 
have  ever  been  rivals  and  often  in  arms  against  each 
other  under  competing  generals,  there  has  never  been 
any  tendency  to  separate  and  form  two  states — as 
occurred  in  Haiti  in  1806  when  the  northern  portion 
fell  under  the  sway  of  Christophe  for  a  period  of  four- 
teen years,  first  as  a  nominal  republic  and  later  as  a 
kingdom,  while  the  southern  portion  became  a  republic 
under  Petion  and  finally  under  Boyer. 

But  although  the  country  has  in  form  remained  a  re- 
public and  the  title  of  the  chief  of  state  has  never  been 
more  pretentious  than  president  or  protector,  in  fact 
there  have  been  few  years  when  the  government  was 


304  SANTO  DOMINGO 

not  autocratic  and  the  president  an  absolute  monarch 
whose  powers  were  limited  only  by  his  own  generous 
impulses  or  the  fear  of  alienating  his  more  influential 
supporters.  Dominican  writers  have  even  referred  to 
the  constitution  as  a  conventional  lie. 

The  various  Dominican  presidents,  as  soon  as  securely 
in  power,  have  generally  been  careful  to  follow  consti- 
tutional forms,  in  an  effort  to  deceive  their  followers  and 
themselves  into  the  belief  that  they  were  acting  in 
regular  course  as  servants  of  the  people.  The  success- 
ful revolutionist  was  almost  always  in  haste  to  "legal- 
ize" his  position  by  an  election.  Most  of  the  presidents, 
among  them  Heureaux,  have  been  great  sticklers  for 
form.  Instead  of  moulding  their  wishes  to  conform  to 
the  constitution,  however,  they  would  mould  the  con- 
stitution to  conform  to  their  wishes,  and  repeatedly 
the  first  act  of  the  successful  revolutionist  has  been  to 
promulgate  a  new  constitution  in  accordance  with  his 
ideas.  It  has  thus  come  to  pass  that  the  constitution, 
far  from  being  revered  as  the  immutable  foundation  of 
government,  has  rather  been  regarded  as  the  convenient 
means  for  the  president  in  office  to  exercise  power. 
From  1844  to  the  present  time  nineteen  constitutions 
have  been  promulgated  in  Santo  Domingo,  one  in  the 
year  1844,  one  each  in  1858,  1859  and  1865,  two  in 
1866  and  one  each  in  1868,  1874,  1875,  1877,  1878,  1879, 
1880,  1887,  1896,  1907  and  1908. 

This  extraordinary  number  is  due  in  part  to  the 
practice  of  not  enacting  amendments  to  an  existing 
constitution,  but  of  promulgating  the  amended  instru- 
ment as  a  new  constitution.  On  three  of  the  occasions 
here  indicated  a  constitution  was  abrogated  in  order  to 
revive  a  prior  one.  No  account  is  taken  in  the  above 
computation  of  the  instances  where  a  successful  revolu- 
tionist in  order  to  announce  his  adherence  to  the  then 


GOVERNMENT  305 

existing  constitution  promulgated  the  same  anew. 
Thus  the  constitution  of  1896  was  reestablished  in  1903. 

The  Dominican  constitutions  have  all  been  modeled 
on  the  general  lines  of  that  of  the  United  States,  and 
have  differed  from  each  other  only  in  detail.  The  term 
of  office  of  the  president  has  varied  from  one  to  six 
years  and  the  powers  conferred  upon  him  have  been 
more  or  less  ample.  The  constitution  of  1854,  revived 
in  1859,  1866  and  1868,  practically  invested  him  with 
dictatorial  powers,  and  the  only  legislative  assembly  it 
provided  for  was  an  "Advisory  Senate"  of  nine  mem- 
bers. 

The  present  constitution  was  drafted  by  a  constitu- 
tional assembly  which  sat  in  Santiago  de  los  Caballeros 
in  the  early  part  of  1908.  It  is  disappointing  both  as  a 
literary  and  political  document.  The  style  bears  wit- 
ness to  the  haste  with  which  the  instrument  was  com- 
piled. Provisions  quite  unsuitable  to  Dominican  con- 
ditions are  included,  such  as  that  granting  the  right  to 
vote  to  all  male  citizens  over  eighteen  years  of  age. 
Such  an  extension  of  the  suffrage  would  be  looked  upon 
askance  even  in  countries  where  education  is  general, 
and  in  Santo  Domingo  would  constitute  a  serious  dan- 
ger if  really  put  into  effect.  While  the  presidential 
succession  is  left  to  be  regulated  by  a  law  of  Congress, 
the  constitution  goes  into  minute  details  regarding 
citizenship,  naturalization  and  several  other  matters. 
Repeated  attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  a  new 
constitution  and  in  1914  partial  elections  were  held  for 
a  constitutional  convention,  but  for  one  reason  or  an- 
other the  plan  has  not  matured.  A  new  constitution 
will  probably  be  provided  in  connection  with  the  cessa- 
tion of  American  occupation. 

According  to  the  present  constitution  the  president 
must  be  a  native  born  Dominican,  at  least  thirty-five 


306  SANTO  DOMINGO 

years  of  age  and  with  a  residence  of  at  least  twenty 
years  in  the  Republic.  His  term  of  office  is  fixed  at 
six  years,  to  be  counted  from  the  day  of  inauguration. 
The  fact  that  no  specific  date  is  mentioned  has  re- 
peatedly proved  a  matter  of  convenience  to  successful 
revolutionists.  The  designation  of  a  presidential  term 
of  office  in  the  various  constitutions  has  thus  far  been 
something  of  an  irony,  for  of  the  43  executives  who 
have  come  to  the  fore  in  the  70  years  of  national  life, 
but  three  presidents  have  completed  terms  of  office  for 
which  they  were  elected:  Baez  one  term,  Merino  one 
and  Heureaux  four,  nor  was  the  distinction  of  these 
three  due  to  ought  but  their  success  in  suppressing 
revolutionary  movements.  Five  vice-presidents  com- 
pleted presidential  terms.  Two  presidents  were  killed 
and  twenty  deposed.  The  other  chief  magistrates  re- 
signed more  or  less  voluntarily. 

Of  the  43  presidents  15  were  chosen  by  popular  elec- 
tion according  to  constitutional  forms,  5  were  vice- 
presidents  who  succeeded  to  the  presidency,  4  were  pro- 
visional presidents  elected  by  Congress,  10  began  as 
military  presidents  and  then  had  themselves  elected 
under  constitutional  forms,  and  9  were  purely  and  sim- 
ply military  provisional  presidents. 

A  comparison  of  the  list  of  presidents  with  the  roster 
of  executives  of  Haiti  reveals  a  disproportion,  for  though 
the  black  Republic  has  been  in  existence  since  1804,  it 
has  had  but  twenty-nine  chiefs  of  state,  the  average 
duration  of  whose  rule  was  therefore  much  longer  than 
has  been  the  case  in  Santo  Domingo.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  of  the  Haitian  executives  only 
one  completed  his  term  of  office  and  voluntarily  retired; 
of  the  others,  four  remained  in  power  until  their  death 
from  natural  causes,  eighteen  were  deposed  by  revolu- 
tions, one  of  them  committing  suicide,  another  being 


GOVERNMENT  307 

executed  on  the  steps  of  his  burning  palace,  and  still 
another  being  cut  to  pieces  by  the  mob;  five  were 
assassinated;  and  one  is  chief  magistrate  at  the  present 
time. 

The  president  and  members  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Deputies  are  elected  by  indirect  vote.  Electors  whose 
number  and  apportionment  among  the  several  provinces 
and  their  subdivisions  are  prescribed  by  law,  are  chosen 
by  general  suffrage  in  what  are  called  primary  assem- 
blies in  the  several  municipalities  and  constitute  elect- 
oral colleges  which  meet  at  the  chief  town  of  the  respec- 
tive province.  The  electors  having  cast  their  votes  for 
president  the  minutes  of  the  session  are  sent  to  the  cap- 
ital. The  votes  are  counted  in  joint  session  of  Congress 
and  the  successful  candidate  is  proclaimed  by  that  body. 

Though  the  election  procedure  designated  in  the  con- 
stitution was  gravely  followed,  yet  not  once  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  has  the  result  of  an  election  been 
in  doubt,  nor  is  there  an  instance  when  the  candidate  of 
the  government  was  not  elected,  excepting  only  the 
election  of  October,  1914,  when  the  American  govern- 
ment brought  watchers  from  Porto  Rico  to  avoid  gross 
frauds  and  coercion.  Usually  everything  was  prepared 
beforehand  and  the  primaries  and  the  meetings  of  the 
electoral  colleges  were  little  more  than  ratification 
meetings.  The  votes  of  the  electoral  colleges  were  gen- 
erally unanimous  in  favor  of  the  government's  can- 
didate, yet  the  odd  spectacle  has  repeatedly  presented 
itself,  of  a  unanimously  elected  president  being  driven 
out  of  the  country  within  a  few  months  by  a  general 
revolution. 

The  constitution  authorizes  the  president  to  conclude 
treaties  with  the  consent  of  Congress,  to  appoint  cer- 
tain government  officials,  to  receive  foreign  diplomatic 
representatives,  and  to  grant  pardons  in  certain  cases, 


308  SANTO  DOMINGO 

and  makes  him  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy.  Most  of  the  chief  magistrates  have  not  felt 
themselves  hampered,  however,  whether  in  peace  or 
war,  by  any  enumeration  of  powers  in  the  constitution, 
for  their  ascendancy  has  generally  been  such  that  their 
wishes  would  be  complied  with  and  their  illegal  acts 
ratified  or  ignored  by  a  subservient  Congress.  President 
Heureaux  so  controlled  Congress,  the  courts,  and  all 
public  functionaries,  that  the  government  was  prac- 
tically identical  with  his  personality. 

The  constitution  provides  that  in  case  of  the  death, 
resignation  or  disability  of  the  president  the  Congress 
shall  by  law  designate  the  person  who  is  to  act  as  pres- 
ident until  the  disability  ceases  or  a  new  president  is 
elected,  and  that  if  Congress  is  not  sitting  the  Cabinet 
officers  are  immediately  to  call  a  session.  This  is  an 
innovation,  as  from  1853  to  1907  the  Dominican  con- 
stitutions provided  for  a  vice-president.  The  vice- 
president  was  generally  a  decorative  feature.  He  was 
required  to  possess  the  same  qualifications  as  the  pres- 
ident and  was  chosen  with  the  same  formalities,  but  no 
duties  were  assigned  to  him,  not  even  that  of  presiding 
in  Congress,  so  that  his  only  attribute  was  the  glory 
of  being  a  president  in  •escrow.  The  newly  elected  vice- 
president  therefore  often  quietly  retired  to  his  farm, 
emerging  occasionally  to  act  in  the  president's  stead 
when  the  latter  left  the  capital  on  a  trip  through  the 
country.  Frequently  the  vice-president  was  made  del- 
egate of  the  government  in  some  part  of  the  country 
and  at  times  he  was  invested  with  a  portfolio  as  one 
of  the  cabinet  secretaries.  During  the  administration 
of  a  strong  president,  as  in  the  time  of  Heureaux,  the 
vice-president ,  was  generally  one  of  his  satellites, 
whereas,  when  the  president's  power  was  not  so  firmly 
established,  as  in  the  administrations  of  Jimenez  and 


GOVERNMENT  309 

Morales,  one  of  his  rivals  would  be  mollified  by  the 
vice-presidency.  In  such  cases  friction  frequently 
developed,  and  in  the  two  cases  specified  the  vice- 
presidents  and  presidential  rivals,  Vasquez  and  Caceres, 
overthrew  the  president  and  established  themselves 
in  power.  Evidently  in  order  to  avoid  such  disturb- 
ances and  temptations  the  constitution  of  1908  abol- 
ished the  office  of  vice-president.  The  lack  of  a  definite 
successor  to  the  president,  however,  enabled  Victoria  to 
seize  the  presidency  after  the  death  of  Caceres  in  1911 
and  has  given  rise  to  uncertainty  and  trouble  in  the 
cases  of  presidential  succession  since  that  time. 

It  has  been  a  custom,  sometimes  expressly  authorized 
by  the  constitution,  for  the  president  to  delegate  exec- 
utive powers  and  prerogatives  to  persons  selected  by 
him  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  especially  where 
revolutionary  uprisings  threatened.  There  has  usually 
been  such  a  delegate  of  the  government  in  the  Cibao 
and  often  one  in  Azua.  They  are  powerful  officials, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  regarded  as  the  direct  represent- 
atives of  the  president  and  his  administration,  command 
the  local  military  forces,  and  constitute  the  fountain- 
head  of  all  local  executive  appointments.  Nominations 
as  delegates  of  the  government  have  been  preferably 
conferred  upon  provincial  governors  or  upon  the  vice- 
president.  The  president  is  naturally  anxious  to  re- 
pose such  powers  in  one  of  his  confidants,  but  political 
exigencies  have  sometimes  obliged  him  to  soothe  one 
of  his  rivals  with  the  distinction  and  remain  on  the  qui 
vive  thereafter.  More  than  one  governmental  del- 
egate has  overthrown  the  president  and  established 
himself  in  power. 

Provisional  presidents  have  been  numerous  in  Do- 
minican history.  After  a  successful  revolution  the  vic- 
torious general  usually  proclaimed  himself  president  of 


310  SANTO  DOMINGO 

a  provisional  government  and  until  the  constitution 
was  again  declared  in  force  he  and  his  ministers  united 
executive  and  legislative  power.  How  far  the  acts  of 
such  de  facto  governments  were  legally  binding  upon 
the  Republic  has  been  questioned  in  cases  where  ob- 
ligations were  imposed  upon  the  country,  but  foreign 
governments  in  asserting  their  rights  have  paid  little 
attention  to  such  quibbles. 

The  constitution  provides  that  there  shall  be  such 
executive  secretaries  as  may  be  determined  by  law. 
They  are  currently  referred  to  as  ministers  and  their 
number  has  been  fixed  at  seven,  namely,  (i)  secretary 
of  the  interior  and  police  (interior  y  policia) ;  (2)  secre- 
tary of  foreign  relations  (relaciones  exteriores);  (3)  sec- 
retary of  finance  and  commerce  (hacienda  y  comercio) ; 

(4)  secretary  of  war  and  the  navy  (guerra  y  marina); 

(5)  secretary  of  justice  and  public  instruction  (justicia  e 
instruction  publica);  (6)  secretary  of  agriculture  and 
immigration  (agricultura  e  inmigracion) ;  (7)  secretary 
of  public  development  and  communications  (fomento  y 
comunicaciones).     Communication  between   Congress 
and  the  executive  departments  is  rendered  easier  than 
in  the  United  States  by  the  constitutional  provision 
that  the  secretaries  of  state  are  obliged  to  attend  the 
Congressional  sessions  when  called  by  Congress.    This 
right    of    interpellation    has    frequently    been    exer- 
cised. 

The  secretary  of  the  interior  and  police  is  at  the 
head  of  an  important  department.  He  is  the  adminis- 
trative superior  of  the  provincial  governors  and  the 
communal  and  cantonal  chiefs.  His  position  renders 
him  the  sentinel  of  the  government  for  the  detection  of 
revolutionary  movements. 

The  foreign  office  of  the  Republic  is  directed  by  the 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs.  The  diplomatic  service  of 


GOVERNMENT  311 

Santo  Domingo  is  limited  to  the  modest  needs  of  the 
country,  the  more  important  posts  being  those  of 
minister  plenipotentiary  in  the  United  States,  Haiti  and 
France  and  charge  d'affaires  in  Cuba  and  Venezuela. 
The  majority  of  consuls  depend  altogether  upon  con- 
sular fees  for  their  remuneration,  only  a  few  of  the  more 
important  being  provided  for  in  the  budget.  The 
consulates  of  most  consequence  have  been  considered 
to  be  those  in  the  surrounding  West  India  Islands  and  in 
New  York  City,  for  apart  from  their  commercial  rela- 
tions with  the  Republic  these  places  have  been  the 
favorite  haunts  of  conspiring  political  exiles.  Almost 
all  the  European  countries  are  represented  in  the 
Dominican  Republic  either  by  ministers,  charges  d'af- 
faires or  consuls.  Of  the  diplomatic  representatives 
residing  in  Santo  Domingo  City  the  highest  in  rank  is 
the  American  minister.  Before  1904  the  American 
minister  to  Haiti  was  accredited  to  the  Dominican 
Republic  as  charge  d'affaires.  The  United  States  has 
consular  representatives  at  all  the  principal  ports, 
there  being  an  American  consul  at  Puerto  Plata  and 
consular  agents  elsewhere.  In  the  past,  great  respect 
has  been  shown  to  consulates  even  to  the  extent  of 
allowing  them  privileges  of  extra-territoriality,  and 
frequently  political  refugees  have  sought  asylum  under 
the  flag  of  a  mere  consular  agent. 

The  secretary  of  finance  and  commerce  has  charge  of 
the  sources  of  national  income,  and  the  customs  and 
internal  revenue  services,  and  under  his  authority  the 
disbursements  of  the  Republic  are  audited.  The  office 
for  the  compilation  of  statistics,  organized  a  few  years 
ago,  is  also  in  this  department. 

The  army,  rural  police,  navy  and  the  captaincies  of 
the  port  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  secretary  of 
war  and  the  navy.  This  official  is  always  a  military 


312  SANTO  DOMINGO 

man  and  generally  takes  the  field  in  person  in  cases  of 
revolutionary  uprisings.  During  the  insurrection  of 
Jimenez  against  Morales  in  1903-4,  two  of  Morales' 
ministers  of  war  were  killed  in  battle. 

Upon  the  American  occupation  in  1916  the  military 
force  of  the  Republic  was  disbanded.  There  were  at 
that  time  twelve  military  posts,  one  in  the  capital  of 
each  province.  The  commanders  and  their  aides  and 
the  chiefs  of  forts  and  their  assistants  were  treated  as 
distinct  from  the  regular  army.  The  army's  strength 
and  organization  have  varied  greatly;  at  the  time  of  its 
dissolution  the  authorized  strength  was  one  infantry 
regiment  of  about  470  officers  and  men,  and  a  band  of 
33  men.  Only  a  few  months  before,  the  preceding 
budget  had  authorized  an  infantry  force  of  about  800 
officers  and  men  and  a  battery  of  mountain  artillery  of 
100  officers  and  men,  in  addition  to  the  all-important 
band.  In  reality,  however,  only  the  membership  of  the 
band  was  certain;  in  time  of  war  the  rest  of  the  military 
establishment  was  much  larger,  and  in  time  of  peace  it 
comprised  numerous  phantom  soldiers,  whose  salaries 
were  nevertheless  regularly  collected  from  the  national 
treasury.  Service  was  supposed  to  be  voluntary,  but 
the  "volunteers"  were  generally  picked  out  by  com- 
munal chiefs  and  brought  in  under  guard,  sometimes 
tied  with  ropes  to  keep  them  from  deserting. 

There  was  also  an  inefficient  and  overbearing  rural 
police  called  the  "Guardia  Republicana,"  supposed  to 
consist  of  seven  companies  of  about  800  officers  and 
men,  but  here  too  things  were  not  what  they  seemed. 
The  higher  officers  of  the  Republican  Guard  were  a 
brigadier-general,  a  colonel,  a  lieutenant-colonel  and 
2  majors;  those  of  the  army  only  a  colonel,  2  lieutenant- 
colonels  and  2  majors,  which  was  very  modest  for  a 
country  teeming  with  generals  and  where  the  budget  of 


GOVERNMENT  313 

1909  even  appropriated  $20,000  for  a  "corps  of  generals 
at  the  orders  of  the  president." 

The  American  garrison  in  the  Republic,  comprising 
about  1000  men,  took  over  the  military  posts  in  the 
Republic  and  lent  strength  to  the  Guardia  Republicana. 
By  an  order  of  the  military  governor,  of  April  7,  1917, 
the  sum  of  $500,000  was  set  aside  for  the  organization 
of  a  constabulary  force  to  be  called  the  "Guardia 
Nacional  Dominicana,"  to  take  the  place  of  the  Domin- 
ican army,  navy  and  police.  This  Dominican  National 
Guard  is  to  be  commanded  by  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  and  such  other  officers  as  the  American  govern- 
ment may  consider  necessary.  Its  organization  is  far 
advanced  and  it  has  already  absorbed  the  Guardia 
Republicana.  In  it  will  be  merged  the  frontier  guard 
of  about  70  men  depending  on  the  general  receiver's 
office,  and  probably  also  the  small  municipal  police 
squads  that  compel  the  observance  of  municipal  ordi- 
nances. 

The  Dominican  navy  is  now  composed  of  a  single 
gunboat,  the  "Independencia."  At  the  end  of  Heu- 
reaux's  rule  the  country  boasted  three.  The  best  of 
these  was  the  "Restauracion,"  which  went  on  the 
rocks  at  the  entrance  to  Macoris  harbor  in  one  of  the 
first  conflicts  between  the  Jimenistas  and  Horacistas. 
The  story  goes  that  the  steamer  was  about  to  attack 
Macoris,  that  the  pilot,  in  sympathy  with  the  opposi- 
tion, grounded  her  with  a  view  to  having  her  captured, 
but  that  a  sudden  storm  drove  her  to  complete  destruc- 
tion. Another  gunboat  was  the  "  Presidente,"  which  had 
figured  in  history,  for  it  was  nothing  less  than  the  yacht 
"Deerhound,"  on  which  the  Confederate  Admiral 
Semmes  took  refuge  after  the  sinking  of  the  "Alabama" 
by  the  "Kearsarge."  In  1906  it  was  sent  to  Newport 
News  for  overhauling  as  old  age  had  made  it  unsea- 


314  SANTO  DOMINGO 

worthy,  but  since  the  repairs  would  have  cost  more  than 
the  vessel  was  worth,  it  was  sold  for  old  iron.  The  sur- 
vivor, the  "Independencia"  is  a  trim  vessel  with  a  crew 
of  fifty  officers  and  men.  Attached  to  the  general 
receiver's  office  are  several  gasoline  revenue  cutters, 
recently  provided. 

The  secretary  of  justice  and  public  instruction  has 
administrative  supervision  over  the  courts,  jails  and 
schools  of  the  Republic,  and  the  government  subven- 
tions to  primary  and  private  schools  are  disbursed 
under  his  direction. 

The  secretary  of  agriculture  and  immigration  is  the 
cabinet  officer  of  most  recent  creation.  Prior  to  the 
1908  constitution  agriculture  had  been  in  charge  of  the 
department  of  public  development  and  there  had  been 
no  special  provision  for  immigration.  The  importance 
of  these  subjects  for  the  Republic  was  felt  to  be  such  as 
to  merit  the  establishment  of  a  special  department. 
In  practice  the  department  has  done  nothing,  its  efforts 
being  hampered  by  revolutions  and  circumscribed  by 
the  limited  sums  at  its  disposal.  Its  activities  have 
been  confined  to  a  general  supervision  of  agriculture, 
the  preparatory  work  of  the  establishment  of  an  agricul- 
tural experiment  station  and  the  operation  of  a  small 
meteorological  service. 

The  department  of  public  development  and  com- 
munications has  charge  of  the  postal  service  of  the 
Republic,  of  the  national  telegraph  and  telephone,  of 
the  lighthouses,  and  of  the  public  works  carried  on  by 
the  government. 

The  size  of  the  national  legislature  of  Santo  Domingo 
has  fluctuated  considerably.  Under  the  1896  constitu- 
tion the  Congress  consisted  of  a  single  house  of  twenty- 
four  members,  two  from  each  of  the  then  existing  six 
provinces  and  six  districts.  The  increase  of  the  na- 


GOVERNMENT  315 

tional  income  permitting  greater  expenditures,  the  con- 
stitution of  1908  provided  for  two  houses,  one  called 
the  Senate,  the  other  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  twelve  members,  one  from 
each  province,  elected  by  the  same  electoral  colleges 
that  elect  the  president  and  holding  office  for  six  years. 
One-third  of  the  Senate  is  renewed  every  two  years. 
The  number  of  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  is 
supposed  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  in- 
habitants of  the  various  provinces,  but  as  there  has 
been  no  census  the  number  is  provisionally  fixed  at 
twenty-four,  two  from  each  province.  The  members 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  are  elected  for  a  term  of 
four  years,  also  by  the  electoral  colleges,  which  at  the 
same  time  designate  alternates  for  the  several  members. 

Congress  meets  each  year  in  regular  session  on  the 
anniversary  of  Dominican  independence,  February  27, 
and  its  session  is  limited  to  ninety  days,  which  may, 
however,  be  extended  sixty  days  more.  Since  there  are 
no  provincial  legislatures  the  powers  of  the  Congress, 
set  forth  in  the  Constitution,  are  sweeping.  They 
include  the  right  to  legislate  in  general  for  every  part 
of  the  Republic,  to  approve  or  reject  treaties  and  to 
try  the  president,  cabinet  members  and  supreme  court 
judges  on  impeachment  charges. 

In  practice  the  elections  for  deputies  have  been  as 
perfunctory  as  those  for  president,  though  there  were 
occasional  contests.  The  character  and  attitude  of 
Congress  has  varied  with  the  character  and  condition 
of  the  presidents.  During  the  incumbency  of  strong 
leaders,  such  as  Santana,  Baez  and  Heureaux,  the 
Congress  was  little  more  than  the  tool  of  the  executive, 
but  when  the  personality  of  the  president  was  not  so 
overwhelming  or  when  many  of  the  deputies  were 
followers  of  a  rival  chieftain,  as  in  the  administrations 


316  SANTO  DOMINGO 

of  Jimenez  and  Morales,  an  independent  and  some- 
times a  nagging  spirit  has  been  manifested. 

Under  the  American  occupation  the  Congress  was 
by  decree  of  January  2,  1917,  declared  in  abeyance  and 
all  executive  and  legislative  powers  are  temporarily 
exercised  by  the  commander  of  the  American  forces. 
The  heads  of  executive  departments  are  officers  of  the 
American  navy  or  marine  corps.  Otherwise  the  general 
structure  of  the  government  remains  as  before.  The 
theory  that  Santo  Domingo  is  an  independent,  sov- 
ereign country  is  carefully  followed,  though  at  times  it 
leads  to  anomalous  situations,  as  when  the  American 
military  governor  issues  exequaturs  to  American  con- 
suls in  Santo  Domingo  "by  virtue  of  the  powers  vested 
in  me  by  the  Constitution  of  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic," or  when  the  American  minister,  Hon.  W.  W.  Rus- 
sell, representing  the  United  States  and  receiving  his 
instructions  from  the  United  States  State  Department, 
calls  on  Admiral  H.  S.  Knapp,  chief  executive  of  Santo 
Domingo,  who  takes  his  orders  from  the  United  States 
Navy  Department. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  Republic  is  divided 
into  twelve  provinces:  Azua,  Barahona,  Espaillat,  La 
Vega,  Macoris,  Monte  Cristi,  Pacificador,  Puerto 
Plata,  Samana,  Santiago,  Santo  Domingo  and  Seibo. 
Formerly  six  were  known  as  provinces  and  six  as 
maritime  districts,  though  there  was  in  practice  no 
distinction  between  them.  The  provinces  are  sub- 
divided into  communes  and  cantons — a  canton  being  a 
commune  in  embryo — and  these  in  turn  are  subdivided 
into  sections.  Congress  is  empowered  to  create  new 
provinces,  communes  and  cantons. 

In  the  twelve  provinces  there  are  now  sixty-five 
communes,  several  comprising  cantons.  The  provinces 
bear  the  names  of  their  capital  towns,  except  Espaillat 


GOVERNMENT  317 

and  Pacificador,  the  former  of  which  is  called  after  Ulises 
F.  Espaillat  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  War  of 
Restoration  and  was  president  in  1876,  and  the  latter  in 
honor  of  President  Heureaux,  on  whom  a  fawning  Con- 
gress conferred  the  title  of  Pacificador  de  la  Patria,  but 
these  also  are  sometimes  known  by  the  names  of  their 
capitals,  Moca  and  San  Francisco  de  Macoris.  The 
communes  bear  the  names  of  their  urban  centers. 
Towns  with  long  names  are  usually  referred  to  by  part 
of  the  name  only,  thus  Santa  Cruz  del  Seibo  is  known 
simply  as  El  Seibo,  Santa  Barbara  de  Samana  either  as 
Santa  Barbara  or  as  Samana,  etc. 

At  the  head  of  each  province  is  an  official  who  bears 
the  title  of  governor.  He  acts  as  the  direct  agent  of  the 
president  and  is  chief  of  the  government  police  and 
commander  of  the  military  forces  of  the  district.  In 
civil  matter  he  is  dependent  upon  the  department  of 
the  interior  and  police,  in  military  affairs  he  is  under 
the  department  of  war  and  the  navy.  The  governors 
are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  Republic  and 
their  salaries  are  paid  from  the  national  treasury.  Un- 
der the  present  American  occupation  the  various  prov- 
inces still  have  their  governors,  but  the  real  governors 
are  the  American  officers  locally  in  command  of  the 
occupation  forces. 

In  each  commune  and  canton  there  is  a  communal  or 
cantonal  chief  who  represents  the  governor  of  the  prov- 
ince. He  is  paid  by  the  national  government  and  is 
charged  with  the  preservation  of  the  peace  in  his  juris- 
diction. Again  in  each  section  there  is  a  sectional  chief, 
a  local  police  officer  who  depends  on  the  communal  chief. 

The  system  of  local  chieftains  of  gradually  diminish- 
ing category  has  brought  Santo  Domingo  to  resemble 
in  some  administrations  a  feudal  monarchy  rather  than 
a  constitutional  republic.  As  governor  the  president 


318  SANTO  DOMINGO 

usually  chose  prominent  men  of  the  locality,  either 
friends  whom  he  wished  to  reward  or  opponents  or 
rivals  whom  he  was  obliged  to  placate.  The  communal 
chiefs  were  also  appointed  by  the  president,  though 
the  governor's  wishes  were  respected  to  a  large  extent, 
and  here  too  men  of  influence  were  selected,  such  in- 
fluence usually  being  reckoned  by  the  possession  of  a 
devoted  following.  The  section  chiefs  were  chosen 
under  similar  considerations. 

Though  the  law  prescribes  the  duties  of  the  governors, 
their  local  prestige,  their  authority  as  commanders  of 
the  military,  and  their  activities  in  revolutionary  times, 
have  so  exalted  their  position  as  to  convert  them  into 
something  like  satraps  and  make  them  powerful  sup- 
porters or  dangerous  rivals  of  the  president.  Many 
insurrections  have  been  inaugurated  by  disaffected 
governors.  At  times  provinces  have  remained  prac- 
tically independent  for  many  months,  ruled  merely  by 
the  governor  and  a  coterie  of  his  friends,  while  the  pres- 
ident, in  the  impossibility  of  imposing  his  authority, 
was  obliged  to  acquiesce.  A  conspicuous  example  of 
such  a  peculiar  state  of  affairs  was  furnished  by  the  dis- 
trict of  Monte  Cristi,  during  the  presidency  of  Morales. 
In  December,  1903,  the  formidable  insurrection  of 
Jimenez  against  Provisional  President  Morales  orig- 
inated in  Monte  Cristi  and  though  the  government 
gradually  regained  the  remainder  of  the  country  it  was 
unable  to  subjugate  this  district,  where  the  entire  pop- 
ulation was  Jimenista  and  the  character  of  the  country 
rendered  campaigning  very  difficult.  Finally  in  the 
spring  of  1904  a  formal  treaty  was  signed  by  which  the 
insurgents  agreed  to  lay  down  their  arms  upon  the  gov- 
ernment's promise  not  to  interfere  in  their  district, 
where  all  executive  appointments  were  thereafter  to  be 
made  as  recommended  by  the  local  authorities.  Though 


GOVERNMENT  319 

constitutional  forms  were  still  observed  a  few  military 
chiefs  thus  assumed  the  direction  of  affairs.  Whenever 
any  executive  appointment  was  to  be  made,  the  name 
of  the  nominee  was  certified  to  the  capital  to  be  ratified 
as  a  matter  of  course;  when  orders  came  from  Santo 
Domingo  City,  whether  in  civil  or  military  affairs, 
they  were  obeyed  or  ignored  as  convenience  dictated; 
the  entire  amount  of  the  revenues  collected  in  the 
Monte  Cristi  custom-house  was  retained  in  the  district. 
In  order  to  stimulate  imports  and  increase  the  customs 
collections  the  local  authoiities  even  conceded  a  secret 
discount  from  the  general  tariff.  With  the  enforcement 
of  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Company's  arbitral 
award  and  the  inauguration  of  the  receivership  for 
Santo  Domingo  the  control  of  the  custom-house  passed 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  local  chieftains,  who  sullenly 
protested  as  against  an  invasion  of  their  treaty  rights. 
In  other  matters  the  autonomy  of  the  district  remained 
unimpaired  until  the  beginning  of  1906  when  upon  the 
fall  of  Morales  the  government  troops,  in  suppressing 
the  revolution  in  the  north,  overran  Monte  Cristi  prov- 
ince and  restored  its  dependency  upon  the  central 
government. 

The  healthiest  and  most  important  political  sub- 
divisions in  Santo  Domingo  are  the  communal  govern- 
ments, and  whatever  progress  has  been  made  in  the 
Republic  has  been  due  largely  to  their  initiative.  They 
correspond  to  the  Spanish  "municipios"  and  the 
French  "communes."  In  Santo  Domingo  the  French 
name  was  introduced  during  Haitian  occupation.  The 
various  towns  constitute  the  centers  of  government, 
their  jurisdiction  extends  over  the  surrounding  rural 
districts,  and  the  affairs  of  the  whole  are  administered 
by  a  municipal  council.  The  powers  of  such  councils 
are  manifold  and  far-reaching  and  their  importance  has 


320  SANTO  DOMINGO 

been  accentuated  by  the  chronic  impotency  of  the  cen- 
tral government  to  foster  public  improvements.  The 
councils  exercise  all  the  faculties  commonly  pertaining 
to  city  councils  elsewhere  and  have  control  of  education, 
sanitation,  streets  and  roads  in  their  respective  districts. 
They  also  act  as  election  boards. 

When  an  outlying  hamlet  of  the  rural  belt  has  grown 
to  sufficient  size  it  is  erected  into  a  municipal  district  or 
canton  and  accorded  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  a  can- 
tonal chief  and  governing  board.  It  remains  subject, 
however,  to  the  municipal  council  of  the  commune  of 
which  it  formed  a  part  until  further  development  war- 
rants its  segregation  as  an  independent  commune  with 
its  own  council.  The  cantons,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
sections,  are  also  provided  with  a  cemetery  and  a  small 
church  or  chapel. 

From  among  their  number  the  municipal  councilmen 
select  a  president  who  is  regarded  as  mayor  of  the  com- 
mune, though  many  of  the  duties  elsewhere  pertaining 
to  mayors  are  discharged  by  an  official  called  the  syndic. 
The  councilmen  are  supposed  to  be  elected  for  a  term 
of  two  years,  but  the  oft  repeated  revolutions  have  in- 
terfered as  seriously  with  their  terms  of  office  as  with 
everything  else.  The  average  Dominican  seems  to  man- 
ifest little  interest  in  his  municipal  elections;  my  ques- 
tion as  to  when  the  last  local  election  was  held  would 
generally  be  answered  with  uncertainty:  "Last  Jan- 
uary, no,  last  April,  no,  I  believe  it  was  in  November." 
After  all,  the  elections  have  usually  been  mere  ratifica- 
tions of  slates  prepared  beforehand.  In  the  time  of  Heu- 
reaux  the  lists  of  new  councilmen  were  often  arranged 
in  the  capital  and  a  few  days  before  election  remitted  to 
the  various  towns,  even  with  a  designation  of  the  person 
whom  the  council  was  later  to  choose  as  its  president. 

The  results  of  such  a  method  of  selection  of  council- 


GOVERNMENT  321 

men  has  not  been  as  unfavorable  as  might  be  expected. 
The  position  of  councilman  pays  no  salary  and  is  not  of 
sufficient  importance  to  appeal  to  the  politician,  so  that 
under  the  present  system  the  principal  merchants  and 
other  prominent  men  are  frequently  designated.  The 
law  does  not  prohibit  foreigners  from  forming  part  of 
the  municipal  councils  and  they  have  frequently  been 
chosen,  especially  in  Puerto  Plata. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

POLITICS   AND    REVOLUTIONS 

Political  parties. — Elections. — Relation  between  politics  and  revolutions. — 
Conduct  of  revolutions. — Casualties. — Number  of  revolutions. — Effect 
of  revolutions. 

The  characteristic  features  of  Dominican  politics 
are  the  violence  of  political  antagonism  and  the  absence 
of  differences  of  principle  between  the  political  parties. 
None  of  the  three  parties  existing  to-day  has  a  platform, 
and  the  distinction  between  them  is  entirely  a  matter  of 
the  personality  of  the  leaders.  Each  party  alleges  that 
it  has  the  best  people  and  the  purest  motives  and  views 
with  alarm  the  government  of  the  country  by  any  other 
party.  In  practice  therefore,  politics  follows  the  rule 
only  too  common  in  the  Spanish-American  countries,  of 
resolving  itself  into  a  personal  struggle  between  the 
"ins"  and  the  "outs." 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  different  policies 
were  occasionally  seriously  considered.  It  was  then 
held  by  some  that  independence  should  be  preserved  at 
any  cost  while  others  contended  that  in  view  of  the 
constant  civil  wars  the  country  should  seek  peace  and 
progress  under  the  protection  of  some  foreign  power. 
Although  the  annexationists  were  at  first  called  con- 
servatives and  their  opponents  liberals,  these  divergent 
views  were  not  the  exclusive  property  of  any  designated 
group  of  men,  but  the  annexation  idea  was  generally 
espoused  by  the  party  that  happened  to  be  in  power, 
which  thus  hoped  both  to  save  the  country  and  per- 


POLITICS  AND  RESOLUTIONS  323 

petuate  its  own  rule,  while  independence  was  invariably 
supported  by  the  opposition,  which  bristled  with  pa- 
triotic indignation  and  the  fear  that  it  might  be  per- 
manently excluded  from  the  banquet-table.  Thus  San- 
tana  obtained  a  return  to  Spanish  rule  in  1861  and 
Cabral  a  few  years  later  agitated  the  question  of  Amer- 
ican annexation  and  their  action  was  denounced  by 
Baez;  yet  shortly  after  Baez  almost  succeeded  in  se- 
curing annexation  to  the  United  States  and  was  stig- 
matized as  a  traitor  by  Cabral. 

Another  issue  which  existed  for  a  few  years  after  the 
separation  from  Haiti  in  1844  was  the  division  between 
clericals  on  the  one  hand  and  liberals  on  the  other,  a 
party  division  that  has  created  havoc  in  other  parts  of 
Spanish  America.  The  very  indefinite  claims  on  each 
side  and  the  practical  unanimity  of  the  country  in  its 
attitude  towards  the  church  caused  this  issue  to  dis- 
appear. 

The  real  parties  that  kept  see-sawing  in  and  out  of 
power  from  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  down  to  the 
time  of  Heureaux  were  those  founded  by  General  Pedro 
Santana  and  General  Buenaventura  Baez.  Intimate 
friends  in  the  struggles  with  Haiti  which  followed  Santo 
Domingo's  declaration  of  independence,  their  ambitious 
and  domineering  natures  soon  clashed,  and  each  col- 
lected a  group  of  friends  and  incessantly  conspired 
against  the  other.  The  partisans  of  Baez,  or  Baecistas, 
adopted  red  for  the  color  of  the  cockades  and  ribbons 
which  distinguished  them  in  the  civil  wars,  and  came 
to  be  known  as  the  "Reds,"  while  the  followers  of 
Santana,  or  Santanistas,  adopted  blue  and  were  known 
as  the  "Blues." 

On  the  death  of  Santana  in  1863,  Luperon  and  Cabral 
became  the  leaders  of  the  Blue  party,  and  for  several 
years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  in  1865  the 


324  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Reds  and  Blues  took  turns  in  setting  up  governments 
and  having  them  overthrown.  In  1873  General  Ignacio 
Maria  Gonzalez,  a  former  adherent  of  Baez,  assembled 
a  following  from  both  factions  and  formed  a  Green  party 
with  which  he  ousted  the  Reds  who  were  then  in 
power.  In  the  next  six  years  the  Reds  and  Greens 
alternated  in  control,  but  in  1879  the  Greens  were 
driven  out  and  definitely  scattered  by  the  Blues,  who 
thereby  gained  a  foothold  which  they  did  not  lose  for 
years.  The  death  of  Baez  in  1884  threw  the  Reds  into 
confusion  and  their  constant  persecution  by  the 
"blue"  President  Ulises  Heureaux  effectually  crushed 
them.  Ulises  Heureaux  with  Blues,  Reds  and  Greens 
built  up  his  own  party  of  "Lilicistas"  which  remained 
in  power  until  his  death  in  1899.  In  the  later  years  of 
Heureaux's  rule  the  distinguishing  color  used  by  his 
troops  was  white. 

On  the  death  of  Heureaux,  Juan  Isidro  Jimenez,  as 
president,  and  Horacio  Vasquez,  as  vice-president, 
came  into  power.  The  rivalry  between  Jimenez  and 
Vasquez  caused  a  division  between  their  respective 
followers,  who  called  themselves  Jimenistas  and  Hora- 
cistas,  thus  forming  the  principal  parties  which  continue 
to  the  present  time.  The  old  Reds  and  Blues  had  dis- 
appeared and  their  survivors  aligned  themselves  with 
Jimenez  and  Vasquez  indiscriminately;  members  of  the 
Baez  family  joined  old  Blues  to  follow  Jimenez,  while 
other  old  Reds  and  Blues  as  well  as  the  Lilicistas 
seemed  to  prefer  Vasquez.  In  1901  an  attempt  was 
made  to  form  a  party  known  as  the  Republican  Party, 
which  it  was  intended  to  endow  with  a  platform,  but 
being  composed  largely  of  Jimenez'  friends,  it  was 
viewed  with  suspicion  and  fell  with  him. 

In  1902  the  Horacistas  revolted  and  obtained  the 
government,  only  to  be  overthrown  in  1903  by  followers 


POLITICS  AND  REVOLUTIONS  325 

of  Jimenez.  The  new  administration  proving  odious  to 
both  parties  they  combined  to  drive  it  out  in  the  fall  of 
1903.  The  Horacistas  gained  the  upper  hand  in  the 
succeeding  government  and  remained  in  power  until 
1912,  though  a  serious  division  developed  in  the  party, 
to  the  extent  that  the  nominal  leader,  Horacio  Vasquez, 
himself  joined  in  conspiracies  and  uprisings  against  the 
administration.  His  efforts,  combined  with  those  of  the 
Jimenistas,  led  to  the  choice  of  Archbishop  Nouel  as 
compromise  candidate  for  president  in  1912.  Monsig- 
nor  Nouel  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  govern  with  both 
parties  and  on  his  resignation  in  1913  another  Horacista 
became  president.  Again  there  was  opposition  from 
Horacistas  as  well  as  Jimenistas  and  in  1914  a  Jimenista 
became  provisional  president. 

At  about  this  time  a  small  third  party  appeared,  led 
by  Federico  Velazquez,  a  former  Horacista.  His  fol- 
lowers are  known  as  Velazquistas,  though  the  party  has 
adopted  the  official  name  of  Progresista.  In  the  elec- 
tions of  1914  he  joined  forces  with  Jimenez,  who  thus 
secured  the  presidency.  The  government,  or  what 
remains  of  it  under  the  present  military  occupation, 
is  still  constituted  largely  by  followers  of  Jimenez  and 
Velazquez. 

Though  both  Jimenistas  and  Horacistas  claim  to 
have  the  larger  following  in  the  country  in  gen- 
eral, it  is  probable  that  they  are  about  equally 
matched,  the  Velazquistas  holding  the  balance  of 
power. 

The  Jimenistas  are  often  vulgarly  called  "bolos" 
or  bob-tailed  cocks,  and  the  Horacistas  "rabudos"  or 
"coludos,"  meaning  bushy-tailed  or  long-tailed  cocks. 
In  the  fighting  on  the  Monte  Cristi  plains  the  Jimenis- 
tas would  often  attack,  but  retire  as  soon  as  their 
opponents  showed  fight,  and  as  such  tactics  reminded 


326  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  Dominicans  of  the  habits  of  bob-tailed  fighting 
cocks,  the  nicknames  were  imposed. 

The  men  who  attain  prominence  in  politics  range  all 
the  way  from  rude  ignorant  military  chiefs  to  polished 
members  of  the  aristocracy.  In  looking  over  the 
annals  of  Dominican  history  the  same  family  names 
constantly  recur  and  it  may  be  affirmed  that  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  country  has  during  the  time  of  inde- 
pendence been  in  the  hands  of  some  twenty  families, 
the  members  of  which  have  swayed  its  councils  and  led 
its  revolutions.  They  have  tasted  the  sweets  of  power 
but  also  the  bitterness  of  defeat,  alternately  occupying 
high  positions  in  the  government  and  pining  in  prison 
or  exile.  Almost  all  the  chiefs  of  state  since  1899  would 
have  done  honor  to  any  country,  but  all  have  been 
obliged  by  the  exigencies  of  politics  to  give  places  in 
their  entourage  to  men  of  low  standing,  whose  deeds  or 
misdeeds  when  in  power  and  whose  unbridled  ambition, 
have  been  a  factor  in  the  civil  wars.  At  the  present 
moment  perhaps  the  most  prominent  political  figure 
is  Fedeiico  Velazquez,  a  man  of  unusual  force  of  char- 
acter, who  as  minister  of  finance  under  Caceres,  en- 
forced the  settlement  of  the  Dominican  debt  and  gave 
what  was  probably  the  most  honest  administration  of 
public  revenues  in  the  Republic's  history.  He  is  one  of 
the  few  men  having  the  moral  courage  openly  to  advo- 
cate American  cooperation  in  the  government  of  the 
country.  He  is  about  forty-seven  years  old,  was  born 
in  Tamboril,  near  Santiago,  and  advanced  through  the 
stages  of  schoolmaster,  shopkeeper,  secretary  to  Vas- 
quez  and  Caceres,  and  cabinet  minister,  to  the  position 
of  a  political  leader. 

The  ill-feeling  akin  to  hatred  between  many  members 
of  the  political  parties  is  incredible  to  one  not  accus- 
tomed to  Latin-American  politics.  They  will  have 


POLITICS  AND  RESOLUTIONS  327 

nothing  in  common,  neither  will  acknowledge  the 
existence  of  any  good  in  the  other,  they  endeavor  to 
keep  apart  in  the  clubs,  they  do  not  care  to  buy  in  each 
other's  stores.  Even  the  women  enter  into  this  bitter- 
ness and  engagements  have  been  broken  because  the 
bridegroom  was  discovered  to  favor  one  party  while  the 
bride  or  her  family  sympathized  with  the  other. 

The  parties  are  not  unalterably  composed  of  the 
same  individuals.  On  the  contrary  a  great  number  of 
the  leaders  and  of  the  rank  and  file  are  continually 
drifting  from  one  party  to  another,  evincing  particular 
anxiety  to  "get  on  the  band-wagon."  These  change- 
lings, while  they  belong  to  any  one  party,  affect  to  be  its 
most  ardent  supporters  in  order  to  avert  any  suspicion 
of  insincerity.  Much  of  the  disorder  which  has  sapped 
the  life-blood  of  the  Republic  has  been  due  to  dis- 
appointed office-seekers  who  suddenly  veered  about  and 
joined  the  opposing  party. 

Not  only  to  personal  ambitions  and  corruption  of 
the  persons  in  power,  but  also  to  the  perfunctory  mode 
in  which  elections  have  been  conducted  the  many 
revolutions  are  to  be  ascribed.  The  municipal  councils 
in  the  communes  and  the  justices  of  the  peace  and  two 
residents  in  the  cantons  form  the  election  board  before 
which  the  voters  of  the  respective  commune  or  canton 
are  supposed  to  appear  to  deposit  their  votes.  It  is 
evident  that  if  anything  more  than  a  small  proportion 
of  the  qualified  voters  appeared,  such  election  boards 
would  be  swamped,  yet  no  difficulty  has  ever  been 
registered.  The  election  of  the  presidential  candidate 
supported  by  the  government  was  generally  so  certain 
that  all  other  aspirants  realized  the  futility  of  launching 
their  candidacy,  and  their  followers  either  voted  for  the 
official  candidate  or  refrained  from  voting.  In  this 
connection  I  am  reminded  of  the  convincing  political 


328  SANTO  DOMINGO 

speeches  attributed  to  one  of  the  foremost  men  of 
La  Vega  during  the  farcical  campaigns  preceding  the 
elections  of  Heureaux.  He  is  quoted  as  saying:  "My 
friends,  this  Republic  is  founded  on  the  free  and  un- 
restricted suffrage  of  its  citizens.  It  is  the  proud  boast 
of  the  Dominican  that  under  the  constitution  he  may 
vote  as  he  pleases.  You  are  therefore  free  to  cast  your 
vote  for  whomsoever  you  prefer.  I  would  not  be  your 
friend,  however,  if  I  did  not  advise  you  that  whoever 
does  not  vote  for  Heureaux  might  as  well  leave  the 
country."  In  elections  for  municipal  councilmen  and 
members  of  Congress  there  was  occasionally  an  excep- 
tion to  the  rule  of  having  a  cut  and  dried  program  and 
contests  sometimes  arose  for  a  seat. 

The  real  campaigns  and  expressions  of  the  people's 
will  have  therefore  been  the  revolutions,  and  politics 
and  revolutions  have  thus  come  to  be  regarded  as 
going  hand  in  hand.  In  a  town  of  the  Cibao  an  ex- 
pression of  the  garrulous  landlady  of  the  inn  attracted 
my  attention.  The  old  lady,  after  regaling  me  with  the 
local  gossip,  started  with  her  own  troubles.  "Two 
revolutions  ago,"  she  said — and  her  mode  of  measuring 
time  struck  me  as  peculiar — "my  eldest  son  took  a 
gun  and  went  into  politics."  "Cojio  un  fusil  y  se  metio 
en  la  politica" — "took  a  gun  and  went  into  politics," 
the  phrase  is  sadly  expressive. 

Such  campaigns  were  only  too  easily  begun.  When  a 
new  president  entered  upon  office  on  the  crest  of  a 
successful  revolution,  apparently  with  the  whole  coun- 
try behind  him  and  his  adversaries  silenced  or  scattered, 
his  popularity  generally  lasted  until  the  spoils  were 
distributed.  ("To  the  victors  belong  the  spoils"  was 
the  policy  of  the  past;  the  American  military  authorities 
are  making  an  important  innovation  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  civil  service  principles  for  selecting  public 


POLITICS  AND  REVOLUTIONS  329 

employees.)  The  disappointed  spirits  immediately 
entered  into  the  plots  which  the  vanquished  opponents 
were  not  slow  in  fomenting.  The  leader  of  the  adverse 
party  or  one  of  his  trusted  lieutenants  raised  the  stand- 
ard of  revolt  and  issued  manifestoes  which  echoed  with 
patriotic  sentiments  and  decried  the  faults  of  the  ad- 
ministration. He  was  joined  by  a  number  of  dis- 
gruntled "generals"  and  their  followers.  The  telegraph 
wires  were  cut  and  the  revolution  had  begun. 

Before  1905  the  seizure  of  a  custom-house  was  in- 
variably the  next  step,  which  would  at  the  same  time 
provide  the  insurgents  with  the  sinews  of  war  and  make 
it  impossible  for  the  government  to  pay  its  employees 
in  that  province.  The  custom-houses  were  eliminated 
as  pawns  in  the  revolutionary  game  by  the  fiscal  treaty 
with  the  United  States,  according  to  which  the  customs 
receipts  were  paid  over  to  an  American  receiver-general. 
Revolutions  for  a  short  time  became  more  difficult,  but 
where  theie's  a  will  there's  a  way,  and  under  a  new 
routine  the  necessary  funds  were  derived  from  the 
government's  internal  revenues  and  from  levies  on 
private  citizens. 

The  first  two  or  three  weeks  of  a  revolt  constituted  its 
critical  period,  for  the  government  at  once  poured 
troops  into  the  district  in  order  to  suppress  the  insur- 
rection, while  the  rebels  sought  to  obtain  as  many 
strategical  points  as  possible.  Both  sides  lived  on  the 
country  while  roaming  about  in  pursuit  of  each  other. 
If  the  government  was  victorious  the  leaders  of  the 
revolt  would  usually  scramble  across  the  border  into 
Haitian  territory,  or  leave  the  country  by  boat,  or 
otherwise  make  themselves  inconspicuous  until  the 
time  was  ripe  for  another  rebellion.  When  the  govern- 
ment was  unready  or  unsuccessful  the  insurrection 
spread  with  great  rapidity  from  town  to  town  until  it 


330  SANTO  DOMINGO 

arrived  before  the  walls  of  Santo  Domingo  City.  There 
was  more  or  less  of  a  siege  and  when  the  president 
capitulated  he  was  permitted  to  board  a  vessel  and  go 
into  exile.  The  head  of  the  new  revolution  then  as- 
sumed charge  of  the  government  and  had  himself 
elected  president  and  the  game  began  all  over  again. 

The  personal  property  of  the  fallen  adversaries  was 
respected  and  there  was  no  confiscation,  such  as  has 
occasionally  been  witnessed  in  certain  other  Latin 
republics.  When  Baez  was  overthrown  in  1858  there 
was  an  exception  to  the  rule,  his  properties  being  seized 
by  the  Santana  government  on  the  ground  that  he  was 
a  traitor  ready  to  deliver  the  country  over  to  the 
Haitians  and  was  guilty  of  other  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors. But  when  the  wheel  of  fortune  again 
brought  Baez  to  the  top  he  promptly  reentered  upon 
his  lands. 

During  the  uprisings  there  has  rarely  been  wanton 
destruction  of  property,  the  property  of  foreigners  being 
especially  respected.  The  owner  of  a  plantation  near 
Macoris  told  me  that  on  one  occasion  the  general  of  an 
insurgent  force  even  halted  at  his  gates  and  sent  him  a 
polite  request  for  permission  to  cross  the  property. 
Such  consideration  was  not  universal,  however,  and 
large  sums  have  been  paid  to  foreigners  for  damages 
inflicted  during  revolutions.  A  serious  inconvenience 
was  caused  farmers  by  revolutions  as  many  laborers 
were  enrolled  in  one  army  or  the  other,  either  volun- 
tarily or  by  impressment. 

In  the  course  of  the  insurrection  there  were  numerous 
encounters  between  the  rebels  and  the  government 
troops,  most  of  them  being  mere  skirmishes.  There  is 
hardly  a  town  where  there  are  not  houses  which  show 
the  marks  of  bullets.  The  walls  and  gates  of  Santo 
Domingo  City  and  the  houses  in  the  vicinity  are  full  of 


0  <-> 

M  o 

C  M 

'5  C 

1  S 
Q  o 


o 
O 


POLITICS  AND  REVOLUTIONS  331 

such  marks,  though  generally  painted  over  now.  In 
1904  and  1905  one  of  the  sights  of  the  city  was  a  beauti- 
ful villa  opposite  the  Puerta  del  Conde,  which  had 
served  as  target  for  the  government  forces  while 
occupied  by  the  insurgents  and  was  so  peppered  by 
shot  and  shell  as  to  look  like  a  sieve.  The  sieges  of 
Santo  Domingo  City  sometimes  lasted  for  many 
months.  At  such  times  almost  every  citizen  took  part 
in  the  excitement,  barricades  were  erected  at  every 
street  opening  and  the  rattle  of  musketry  was  heard  at 
all  hours. 

The  proportion  of  shots  fired  to  casualties  inflicted  is 
known  to  be  enormous  in  all  wars  and  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo it  is  almost  incredible.  Battles  have  been  fought 
lasting  for  hours  with  thousands  of  shots  fired,  yet  with 
not  one  man  lost.  There  have  been  revolutionary  up- 
risings lasting  for  months  with  not  a  man  wounded. 
In  Puerto  Plata  it  is  said  that  when  the  government 
troops  attacked  the  city  in  1904  a  fierce  battle  ensued 
which  continued  from  morning  till  the  town  was  taken 
by  storm  in  the  evening;  yet  only  one  man  was  killed 
and  his  death  was  due  to  his  own  carelessness,  for  he 
appeared  not  far  from  where  soldiers  of  the  other  side 
were  training  a  cannon  and  refused  to  obey  their  warn- 
ing to  get  out  of  the  way,  whereupon  the  cannon  was 
discharged  and  his  arm  shot  off,  causing  a  mortal 
wound. 

At  other  times,  however,  the  results  have  been  far 
more  serious,  as  many  a  maimed  soldier  and  bereaved 
family  can  testify.  The  graves  of  victims  of  the  revolu- 
tions are  scattered  all  over  the  Republic.  How  many 
have  fallen  in  the  disturbances  of  the  past  fifteen  years 
it  is  impossible  to  determine;  I  have  heard  estimates 
ranging  from  1000  up  to  15,000.  Nor  is  revolutionizing 
a  pleasant  business  when  continued  for  any  length  of 


332  SANTO  DOMINGO 

time.  When  the  men  entered  a  town  contributions 
could  be  levied  on  the  merchants,  but  when  they  were 
harassed  and  forced  to  retreat  to  the  mountains  they 
roamed  for  weeks  half  nude,  bare-headed,  barefooted, 
exposed  to  the  weather,  living  on  what  bananas  and 
wild  fruits  they  could  find  or  occasional  wild  hogs  they 
were  able  to  kill,  undermining  their  constitutions  and 
brutalizing  their  natures.  The  landlady  whose  son 
sought  political  distinction  with  a  gun  told  me  amid 
sobs  that  her  boys  were  dutiful,  industrious  lads  before 
being  caught  in  the  revolutionary  torrent,  but  that  in 
the  woods  they  lost  all  inclination  for  work  and  re- 
turned home  completely  demoralized.  From  grieving 
relatives  of  victims  I  have  heard  many  another  story  of 
ruined  lives  and  early  deaths.  It  is  saddening  to  reflect 
on  the  tears  which  have  been  shed  and  the  misery  which 
has  been  caused  by  this  long  continued  civil  strife. 

While  women  have  been  heavy  sufferers  from  the 
revolutions  they  have  not  hesitated  to  take  sides  and 
contribute  their  mite.  Many  are  the  stories  current  in 
Santo  Domingo  of  women  who  smilingly  passed  through 
the  enemy's  ranks  and  carried  ammunition  and  sup- 
plies concealed  beneath  their  garments  to  their  friends 
in  the  woods. 

Excluding  the  revolution  by  which  the  Haitian  yoke 
was  thrown  off  in  1844  an<^  tnat  °f  1863-65,  which 
expelled  the  Spaniards,  there  have  occurred  in  the 
seventy  years  of  Dominican  independence  no  less  than 
twenty-three  successful  revolutions.  One  occurred  in 
each  of  the  years  1848,  1844,  1849,  1857  and  1864, 
three  in  1865,  one  each  in  1866,  1867  and  1873,  three 
in  1876,  one  each  in  1877,  1878,  1879,  1899  and  1902, 
two  in  1903  and  one  each  in  1912  and  1914.  At 
times  hardly  had  a  revolution  proved  successful  when  a 
counter-revolution  broke  out  and  secured  the  victory. 


POLITICS  AND  RESOLUTIONS  333 

The  longest  intermissions  were  from  1879  to  1899  when 
the  party  of  the  dictator  Heureaux  was  in  power,  and 
from  1903  to  1912,  when  the  indirect  protection  of  the 
United  States  was  sufficient  to  sustain  the  government. 

These  were  the  successful  revolutions;  the  unsuccess- 
ful insurrections  are  innumerable.  It  has  been  un- 
fortunate for  the  credit  of  Santo  Domingo  that  almost 
every  little  shooting  affray  is  classed  as  an  insurrection 
or  revolution.  Most  of  these  unsuccessful  uprisings 
have  been  unimportant  excursions  into  the  country  by 
some  disaffected  local  chief  and  a  handful  of  followers, 
the  band  being  promptly  rounded  up  or  scattered  by 
government  forces  or  induced  to  come  in  by  promise  of 
a  job  or  some  other  consideration. 

The  circumstance  that  the  provincial  governors 
found  it  to  their  advantage  to  have  disturbances  in 
their  district  explains  many  of  the  smaller  commotions. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  an  insurrection  or  before  the 
threat  of  an  outbreak  the  authorities  in  the  capital 
would  authorize  the  provincial  governor  to  recruit 
troops  and  draw  funds  for  their  payment.  The  gov- 
ernor would  do  so,  but  if  two  or  three  thousand  men 
had  been  authorized  he  would  raise  only  two  or  three 
hundred  and  forget  to  account  for  the  balance  of  the 
money.  The  suppression  of  the  "revolution"  would 
thus  benefit  both  his  military  reputation  and  his 
pocketbook.  Governors  were  therefore  prone  to 
exaggerate  rumors  of  insurrection  and  sometimes  them- 
selves sent  out  men  to  fire  a  few  shots  in  the  woods  and 
create  alarm. 

Other  insurrections  have  been  fierce  and  formidable 
and  some  administrations  were  obliged  to  engage  in 
constant  warfare  in  order  to  maintain  themselves.  A 
serious  unsuccessful  insurrection  was  that  led  by  Gen. 
Casimiro  de  Moya  against  Heureaux  in  1886,  which 


334  SANTO  DOMINGO 

lasted  six  months.  The  most  widespread  was  that  of 
Jimenez  against  the  Morales  government,  lasting  from 
December,  1903,  to  May,  1904,  and  during  which  the 
insurgents  gained  possession  of  practically  the  entire 
Republic.  Other  serious  outbreaks  occurred  in  1904, 
1905,  1906,  1909,  1911,  1913  and  1916.  The  fires 
smouldered  constantly,  especially  in  the  Cibao,  which 
raises  the  largest  crops  of  everything,  including  revolu- 
tions. 

The  effect  of  such  continuous  commotion  has  been 
most  disastrous  to  the  country  and  the  people  at  large. 
This  is  all  the  more  saddening  when  it  is  considered 
that  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  people  took  part  in  the 
disturbances.  Revolutions,  successful  and  unsuccess- 
ful, have  been  fought  to  a  finish  with  less  than  a  thou- 
sand men  on  either  side.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion are  law-abiding  citizens  who  would  like  nothing 
better  than  to  be  let  alone  and  permitted  to  pursue 
their  vocations  in  peace.  The  other  ten  per  cent  were 
not  entirely  to  blame:  they  have  been  the  victims  of 
their  environment. 

Not  only  have  the  revolutionary  disturbances  caused 
enormous  indirect  loss  to  the  country  through  par- 
alyzation  of  agriculture,  arrest  of  development  and  loss 
of  credit,  but  they  have  also  been  a  large  direct  expense. 
A  considerable  portion  of  every  budget  was  devoted  to 
appropriations  for  the  purchase  of  war  material  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  military  and  naval  establishment. 
When  uprisings  occurred  the  additional  amounts  nec- 
essary for  their  suppression  have  been  taken  from  other 
appropriations,  those  for  public  works  usually  being 
the  first  to  be  cancelled.  If  the  uprisings  became  serious 
the  other  appropriations  of  the  budget  were  reduced 
by  fifty  or  even  seventy-five  per  cent  until  all  the  avail- 
able cash  was  devoted  to  war  purposes.  In  1903  mil- 


POLITICS  AND  REVOLUTIONS  335 

itary  and  naval  expenditures  absorbed  71.7  per  cent  of 
the  Republic's  disbursements,  and  in  1904  72.6  per  cent. 
At  such  times  the  government  was  reduced  to  a  des- 
perate struggle  for  existence;  the  loss  of  the  custom- 
houses in  power  of  the  insurgents  made  its  position 
still  more  precarious;  it  contracted  loans  on  ruinous 
terms;  it  neglected  its  foreign  obligations  and  paid  its 
employees  in  promissory  notes  and  even  in  postage 
stamps,  which  they  would  then  peddle  about  the 
streets.  Under  such  conditions  it  is  natural  that  nothing 
was  left  for  public  improvements.  Even  under  the 
peaceful  administration  of  Heureaux  a  disproportionate 
part  of  the  national  funds  was  expended  for  military 
purposes  and  three  gunboats  were  acquired  and  main- 
tained, but  not  a  single  mile  of  improved  road  was  laid 
out. 

With  the  American  military  occupation  political 
conditions  in  the  Dominican  Republic  have  radically 
changed.  The  system  of  waging  political  campaigns 
by  force  of  arms  has  stopped  abruptly  and  absolutely. 
Revolutions  have  become  a  matter  of  history.  Ballots 
will  hereafter  take  the  place  of  bullets,  and  politics  will 
be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  in  other  orderly 
countries.  Evolution,  not  revolution,  will  be  the  char- 
acteristic of  the  future. 


CHAPTER  XX 

LAW  AND   JUSTICE 

Audicncia   of  Santo   Domingo. — Legal   system. — Judicial   organization. — 
Observance  of  laws. — Prisons. — Character  of  offenses. 

In  the  year  1510  the  Spanish  government  established 
in  Santo  Domingo  the  first  of  the  famous  colonial 
audiencias,  or  royal  high  courts,  the  list  of  which  ap- 
pears like  a  roll  call  of  Spain's  former  glories.  Others 
were  added  later  in  Mexico,  Guatemala,  Guadalajara, 
Panama,  Lima,  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  Quito,  Manila, 
Santiago  de  Chile,  Charcas  (now  Sucre),  and  Buenos 
Aires.  The  audiencia  of  Santo  Domingo  at  first  had 
jurisdiction  over  all  the  territory  under  Spanish  domin- 
ion in  the  new  world,  but  upon  the  establishment  of 
the  audiencia  of  Mexico  and  others  its  jurisdiction  was 
confined  to  the  West  India  Islands,  and  the  north  coast 
of  South  America.  Its  functions  were  both  judicial 
and  administrative,  including  the  power  to  hear  appeals 
from  the  judges  of  the  district  and  from  certain  admin- 
istrative authorities,  and  to  intervene  in  certain  mat- 
ters of  government,  in  the  finances  of  the  territory  and 
in  behalf  of  the  public  peace.  The  governor  and  cap- 
tain-general of  Santo  Domingo  was  president  of  the 
royal  audiencia,  though  not  acting  when  it  sat  as  a  law 
court,  and  at  times  the  audiencia  alone  temporarily 
carried  on  the  government  of  one  or  more  of  the  terri- 
tories under  its  jurisdiction.  It  applied  the  law  as 
expressed  in  the  codification  of  the  "Laws  of  the  Indies," 
and  the  Spanish  "Partidas."  It  sat  in  the  building  still 
called  the  old  palace  of  government. 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  337 

During  the  dark  days  which  fell  upon  the  island  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  presence  of  the  audiencia 
helped  to  save  the  colony  from  being  completely  for- 
gotten. It  continued  in  its  functions  until  the  country 
was  ceded  to  France,  whereupon  in  1799,  it  was  re- 
moved to  the  city  of  Puerto  Principe,  in  Cuba.  Could 
its  records  but  have  been  preserved  a  great  many  gaps 
in  the  history  of  Santo  Domingo,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  and 
Venezuela  would  be  filled.  It  seems  that  the  first  rec- 
ords were  destroyed  by  Drake  in  1583,  and  almost  all 
the  later  ones  succumbed  to  the  negligence  of  man  and 
the  voracity  of  the  tropical  insects.  When  the  govern- 
ment of  Cuba  in  1906  honored  the  request  of  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Dominican  Republic  for  the  return  of  such 
of  the  records  of  the  audiencia  of  Santo  Domingo  as 
were  still  extant,  it  could  find  in  its  national  archives 
and  turn  over  but  a  score  of  bundles  of  documents, 
mostly  records  of  suits  regarding  land  boundaries  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  of  little  historic  value.  These 
and  several  small  mahogany  bookcases  still  preserved  in 
the  present  audiencia  of  Havana,  are  the  only  tangible 
remains  of  this  noted  court. 

When  Santo  Domingo  again  came  under  Spanish  rule 
in  1809,  the  colony  was  included  in  the  territorial  juris- 
diction of  the  audiencia  of  Caracas.  Upon  the  begin- 
ning of  Haitian  rule  in  1822,  when  most  of  the  distin- 
guished citizens,  including  judges  and  lawyers,  left  the 
country,  they  took  with  them  the  ancient  legal  system. 
The  Haitians  imposed  their  laws,  namely,  the  Code 
Napoleon  and  other  French  codes.  These  took  such 
deep  root  that  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Haitians  no  at- 
tempt was  made  to  return  to  the  Spanish  laws,  which 
also  at  that  time  were  still  under  the  disadvantage  of 
not  having  been  revised  and  codified  in  accordance 
with  modern  needs. 


338  SANTO  DOMINGO 

In  1845  the  laws  of  France  were  expressly  adopted  by 
the  Dominican  Republic.  During  the  troublous  times 
following  little  attention  was  given  to  the  legal  system, 
and  there  was  not  even  a  Spanish  translation  of  the 
codes.  After  annexation  to  Spain  in  1861  the  Spanish 
authorities  attempted  to  clarify  the  situation  by  in- 
troducing the  Spanish  penal  code  and  law  of  criminal 
procedure  and  by  appointing  a  commission  to  translate 
the  civil  code,  in  which  they  made  several  changes,  but 
upon  the  reestablishment  of  the  Republic  in  1865  every- 
thing done  in  this  respect  by  the  Spaniards  was  an- 
nulled. Several  efforts  were  later  made  to  secure  a 
translation  of  the  codes,  though  laws  were  not  often 
invoked  amid  so  much  civil  unrest.  As  late  as  1871  the 
American  commission  which  visited  the  island  reported 
that  the  administration  of  justice  had  practically  fallen 
into  disuse.  The  local  military  chiefs  and  the  parish 
priests  decided  the  questions  that  arose. 

As  the  country  progressed  in  spite  of  itself,  and  there 
were  periods  of  peace,  the  need  of  an  official  Spanish 
text  of  the  laws  became  more  pressing,  and  at  length 
in  1882  a  commission  was  appointed  to  translate  and 
adapt  the  French  codes.  On  the  report  of  the  commis- 
sion a  civil  code,  a  code  of  civil  procedure,  a  code  of 
commerce,  a  penal  code,  a  code  of  criminal  procedure 
and  a  military  code  were  approved  in  the  year  1884. 
They  are  literal  translations  of  the  French  codes  with 
a  few  modifications  to  adapt  them  to  local  conditions. 
The  penal  codes  are  such  close  translations  that  several 
paragraphs  relating  to  juries  were  retained,  although 
the  institution  does  not  exist  in  Santo  Domingo.  It 
was  tried  in  18^7,  but  discontinued  in  the  following 
year.  The  Dominican  Congress  made  but  few  changes 
in  these  important  laws,  which  have  therefore  been 
more  permanent  than  the  constitution.  The  need  for 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  339 

a  further  revision  of  the  Dominican  codes  became 
urgent,  however,  and  such  revision  has  very  recently 
been  concluded  by  a  commission  which  sat  for  that 
purpose;  it  is  now  being  considered  with  a  view  to  an 
early  promulgation  of  the  codes  in  amended  form. 

Santo  Domingo,  the  first  Spanish  colony,  thus  has 
no  Spanish  laws.  It  is  the  only  Spanish  country  which 
has  adopted  French  legislation  so  completely,  and 
which  looks  so  largely  to  France  for  its  jurisprudence. 

The  laws  of  Congress,  and  the  decrees  of  the  Exec- 
utive relating  to  concessions,  naturalization,  pardons, 
and  other  matters,  and,  at  present,  the  "executive 
orders"  and  decrees  of  the  military  government,  are 
published  in  the  Official  Gazette,  a  government  news- 
paper appearing  almost  daily.  In  addition  to  the  cal- 
endar date,  official  papers  are  dated  from  the  declara- 
tion of  independence  in  1844  and  the  restoration  of  the 
Republic  in  1863,  somewhat  as  follows:  "Given  in  the 
National  Palace  of  Santo  Domingo,  Capital  of  the  Re- 
public, on  the  3rd  day  of  March,  1916,  the  73rd  year 
of  Independence  and  the  53rd  of  the  Restoration." 
In  Haiti  it  was  formerly  the  custom,  after  a  successful 
revolution,  to  count  dates  not  only  from  the  declaration 
of  independence  but  also  from  the  proclamation  of  the 
latest  revolution,  the  latter  period  being  denominated 
the  "regeneration,"  thus:  In  the  4Oth  year  of  independ- 
ence and  the  3rd  of  the  regeneration.  In  the  Dominican 
Republic  Baez  introduced  this  rule  in  his  presidency 
of  1868-1873,  during  which  period  decrees  were  dated 
in  the  following  manner:  "On  the  3rd  day  of  March, 
1871,  the  28th  year  of  Independence,  the  8th  of  the 
Restoration,  and  the  3rd  of  the  Regeneration."  The 
revolution  of  December,  1873,  ended  this  regeneration, 
and  the  official  references  thereto. 

At  the  present  time  the  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a 


340  SANTO  DOMINGO 

supreme  court,  sitting  in  the  capital  of  the  Republic, 
three  courts  of  appeals,  one  in  Santo  Domingo,  one  in 
Santiago  and  one  in  La  Vega;  twelve  courts  of  first  in- 
stance, one  in  each  province;  and  70  alcaldias  or  justice 
of  the  peace  courts,  in  the  several  communes  and  can- 
tons. The  supreme  court  is  constituted  by  a  presiding 
justice  and  six  associate  justices,  who  are  elected  by  the 
Senate  for  terms  of  four  years.  It  exercises  original 
jurisdiction  in  cases  against  diplomatic  functionaries 
and  judges  of  courts  of  appeals,  sits  as  a  court  of  cassa- 
tion in  appeals  from  the  courts  of  appeals,  finally  de- 
cides admiralty  cases  and  has  certain  other  functions 
assigned  to  it  by  law. 

The  three  courts  of  appeals  each  have  a  presiding 
justice  and  four  associate  justices,  all  elected  by  the 
Senate  for  four  year  terms.  They  exercise  appellate 
jurisdiction  over  cases  adjudged  by  courts  of  first  in- 
stance and  courts-martial,  and  original  jurisdiction  in 
admiralty  cases  and  in  the  prosecution  of  certain 
judicial  and  administrative  officials.  Prior  to  1908 
there  was  one  supreme  court,  with  five  members,  and 
no  court  of  appeals.  When  the  income  of  the  country 
grew,  the  new  constitution  provided  that  the  supreme 
court  have  at  least  seven  members,  and  that  at  least 
two  courts  of  appeals  be  established,  with  their  neces- 
sary judges  and  clerks.  The  system  is  now  costly  and 
topheavy. 

The  twelve  district  courts  each  have  a  judge  of  first 
instance  and  a  judge  of  instruction,  elected  by  the 
Senate  for  terms  of  four  years.  The  judge  of  instruc- 
tion is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  part  of  the  court,  his 
duty  being  to  investigate  the  more  serious  criminal 
offenses,  commit  the  offenders  for  the  action  of  the 
court  and  report  the  result  of  his  investigation  to  the 
prosecuting  attorney.  The  courts  of  first  instance  have 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  341 

original  jurisdiction  in  all  criminal  matters  except  the 
minor  police  offenses  and  in  all  civil  matters  except 
those  expressly  assigned  to  the  justices  of  the  peace. 
They  hear  appeals  from  the  justices  of  the  peace  in 
civil  and  criminal  cases. 

The  local  justices  of  the  peace  are  called  "alcaldes." 
The  alcalde,  in  Spanish  times,  was  an  officer  exercising 
both  administrative  and  judicial  functions,  the  name 
being  derived  from  the  Arabic  "al  cadi,"  the  judge, 
and  whereas  in  Spain  and  most  of  the  former  Spanish 
colonies  the  alcalde  has  now  only  administrative  duties 
and  his  office  is  equivalent  to  that  of  mayor,  in  Santo 
Domingo  he  now  exercises  solely  judicial  authority. 
(The  office  of  "alcalde  pedaneo,"  which  may  be  roughly 
translated  as  deputy  mayor,  exists  in  Santo  Domingo, 
however,  this  title  being  given  to  the  municipal  execu- 
tive's agent  in  each  section.)  The  alcalde's  jurisdiction 
comprises  the  smaller  police  offenses  and,  in  civil  cases, 
matters  involving  less  than  $100,  as  well  as  certain 
cases,  such  as  suits  between  innkeepers  and  guests, 
where  the  limit  of  his  authority  is  raised  to  $300,  and 
other  cases,  such  as  ejectment  suits,  where  his  jurisdic- 
tion attaches  on  account  of  the  subject-matter.  The 
alcaldes  are  appointed  by  the  president  of  the  Repub- 
lic. 

In  general  the  system  works  smoothly.  The  alcaldes 
are  often  ignorant  men,  but  even  in  the  United  States 
the  country  magistrates  are  not  always  founts  of 
wisdom.  The  judges  of  first  instance  and  district 
attorneys  are  almost  without  exception  respected  in  the 
community,  and  the  present  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  and  of  the  courts  of  appeals  enjoy  a  good  reputa- 
tion. Not  infrequently  political  considerations  have 
given  rise  to  poor  appointments,  such  as  occurred  in 
Barahona  some  years  ago  when  the  judge-elect  tele- 


342  SANTO  DOMINGO 

graphed  an  indignant  protest  to  the  capital  to  the  effect 
that  he  was  unacquainted  even  with  the  rudiments  of 
the  law.  The  administration  had  not  taken  the  trouble 
to  ascertain  whether  he  was  a  lawyer,  but  knowing  he 
sought  a  position,  had  given  him  the  first  one  at  hand. 
This  was  rather  an  oversight,  as  the  law  requires  such 
appointees  to  be  members  of  the  bar.  On  another 
occasion  the  legal  requisite  was  filled  by  first  declaring 
the  aspirant  a  lawyer  and  then  designating  him  for 
the  post.  These  cases  are  exceptions,  however.  The 
integrity  of  the  judges  is  not  often  questioned,  but  the 
alcaldes  do  not  enjoy  so  good  a  reputation. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  also  American  provost 
courts  which  take  cognizance  of  "offenses  against  the 
military  government."  This  designation  is  broad 
enough  to  include  anything  the  military  authorities 
choose  to  include.  Apart  from  a  few  cases  of  regrettable 
harshness  these  courts  have  done  fairly  well. 

While  the  various  constitutions  have  expressly  de- 
clared the  independence  of  the  judicial  power,  the  au- 
thority of  the  courts  has  heretofore  been  rather  relative, 
and  they  have  studiously  avoided  conflicts  with  the 
other  branches  of  the  government.  There  is  no  case  on 
record  where  they  have  declared  a  law  unconstitutional. 
The  supreme  court  when  driven  into  a  corner  in  1904 
even  declared  that  it  had  not  the  authority  to  make 
such  a  declaration.  The  constitution  of  1908  modified 
the  decision  by  expressly  providing  that  the  supreme 
court  may  decide  as  to  the  constitutionality  of  laws. 

This  decision  of  the  supreme  court  made  little  im- 
pression in  the  country,  due  probably  in  part  to  the 
ease  with  which  the  various  administrations  have 
disregarded  the  constitution  when  it  suited  their  con- 
venience. The  little  value  of  the  constitution  between 
friends  has  constantly  been  demonstrated.  Certain 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  343 

provisions  have  been  systematically  violated,  even  by 
the  best  of  administrations.  Principal  among  them  is 
the  provision  that  no  one  be  arrested  without  a  warrant 
setting  forth  the  offense,  unless  caught  in  flagrantly 
and  the  provision  that  every  person  imprisoned  be 
informed  of  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment  and  sub- 
mitted to  examination  within  forty-eight  hours  after 
arrest,  and  not  be  detained  for  a  longer  time  than  per- 
mitted by  law.  These  provisions  have  been  dead  letters 
as  far  as  political  prisoners  are  concerned.  When  a 
person  was  suspected  of  being  involved  in  a  conspiracy 
against  the  government  he  was  liable  at  any  moment  to 
be  seized  and  conducted  to  prison,  where  he  might  be 
detained  indefinitely,  until  the  danger  was  over,  or  he 
was  considered  innocuous.  The  ancient  fortress  at  the 
river  mouth  in  Santo  Domingo,  known  as  La  Torre  del 
Homenaje,  bears  over  its  entrance  the  sign,  "Political 
Prison,"  and  rarely  has  it  been  without  tenants,  even 
when  the  country  was  at  peace  and  the  constitutional 
guarantees  were  supposed  to  be  in  force.  On  one  occa- 
sion when  I  heard  a  Dominican  lawyer  lament  that  a 
friend  of  his  had  thus  been  incarcerated  for  several 
months  without  a  hearing,  I  inquired  why  he  did  not 
apply  to  a  court  and  invoke  the  constitutional  provi- 
sion. The  reply  was,  "The  judge  who  signed  an  order 
to  set  the  prisoner  free  would  probably  join  him  in  jail 
before  many  hours  had  passed." 

Such  ignoring  of  the  written  law  was  a  relic  of  the 
days  when  the  will  of  the  military  was  the  only  law  re- 
spected. Reminders  of  the  old  state  of  affairs  con- 
tinued to  crop  out,  though  the  people  and  government 
were  rapidly  adopting  other  customs.  An  instance  oc- 
curred in  Sanchez  during  the  presidency  of  Morales. 
A  younger  brother  of  the  president  was  customs  col- 
lector at  that  port  and  was  accused  by  public  rumor  of 


344  SANTO  DOMINGO 

irregularities  in  office.  A  customs  employee  having 
been  discharged  for  spreading  the  rumor,  called  on  the 
collector  and  invited  him  to  a  meeting  outside;  and  the 
two  adjourned  to  the  bush,  where  shots  were  exchanged 
and  young  Morales  was  wounded  in  the  leg.  The 
aggressor  was  immediately  seized  by  the  general  com- 
manding the  military  forces  in  Sanchez  and  carried  to 
the  town  cemetery,  a  grave  was  dug,  and  the  general 
prepared  to  have  him  summarily  shot.  The  town 
authorities  interceded,  but  in  vain,  and  the  execution 
was  about  to  take  place  when  the  ladies  of  the  town 
succeeded  in  moving  the  commandant  by  their  plead- 
ings. The  prisoner  was  remanded  to  the  jail  in  Samana 
and  was  later  tried  by  the  court  of  first  instance  and 
acquitted.  Much  more  recently  the  leader  of  the  band 
that  assassinated  President  Caceres  was  killed  without 
trial. 

Some  of  the  surviving  military  leaders  of  the  old 
school  find  difficulty  in  adjusting  themselves  to  the 
new  conditions.  Among  them  was  General  Cirilo  de  los 
Santos,  better  known  by  his  nickname  "Guayubin" 
(the  name  of  the  town  where  he  was  born)  who  took  an 
active  part  in  the  political  disturbances  of  the  Repyblic 
for  many  years.  When  I  traveled  through  the  country 
with  Prof.  Hollander  on  his  financial  investigation  we 
were  guests  of  this  hero  of  a  hundred  revolutions,  who 
was  then  Governor  of  La  Vega.  In  the  course  of  con- 
versation Prof.  Hollander  expressed  gratification  at  the 
cessation  of  the  custom  of  shooting  political  prisoners. 
The  governor  was  at  that  time  engaged  in  the  persecu- 
tion of  one  Perico  Lasala,  a  perpetual  revolutionist  who 
was  infesting  the  nearby  hills  and  who  has  since  done 
his  country  a  favor  by  being  killed  in  an  incursion  on  the 
coast.  The  idea  of  not  shooting  this  notorious  character 
as  soon  as  he  was  apprehended  seemed  grotesque  to 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  345 

Guayubin — and  perhaps  not  without  reason.  He  cried, 
"If  you  were  in  my  place  and  caught  Perico  Lasala, 
wouldn't  you  shoot  even  him?"  "Why,  no,"  was  the 
answer.  Guayubin's  face  fell  and  he  became  thought- 
ful. For  the  rest  of  the  day  he  was  strangely  silent  and 
he  continued  so  on  the  morrow,  when  he  accompanied 
us  for  several  miles  out  of  town.  When  bidding  good- 
bye, he  broke  out:  "I  wish  to  ask  your  advice.  If  I 
should  catch  Perico  Lasala,  what  would  you  advise  me 
to  do  with  him?"  Dr.  Hollander  asked:  "What  do 
you  do  with  persons  who  steal  or  commit  similar  viola- 
tions of  the  law?"  "We  put  them  in  jail."  "Why, 
then,  put  Perico  Lasala  in  jail."  A  look  of  inexpressible 
relief  came  over  the  face  of  the  old  warrior.  "Of 
course!"  he  said,  "I  never  thought  of  that." 

Not  long  after  this  incident  General  Guayubin  met 
a  political  opponent  against  whom  he  harbored  resent- 
ment. He  immediately  drew  his  revolver  and  began  to 
shoot,  and  the  object  of  his  wrath  escaped  only  by 
dexterous  sprinting.  At  a  session  of  Congress  there 
was  some  criticism  of  his  action  and  Guayubin  resigned 
his  office  in  disgust.  The  death  of  this  fighter  was  as 
stern  as  his  life.  He  attended  a  christening  party  at  a 
house  where  there  was  a  forgotten  powder-cask;  a 
spark  fell  into  the  powder  and  in  the  ensuing  explosion 
Guayubin's  eyesight  was  destroyed.  Grimly  refusing 
to  take  food  or  drink,  he  pined  away. 

Prior  to  the  American  occupation,  the  Dominican 
penal  establishments  were  as  a  rule  in  very  bad  condi- 
tion. There  is  no  penitentiary  and  portions  of  the 
forts  or  government  houses  are  used  as  jails.  The 
prisoners  were  herded  together  with  little  thought  of 
cleanliness.  The  stench  in  some  of  the  jail  yards  was 
at  times  almost  unbearable.  In  justice  it  should  be 
stated  that  the  Dominican  authorities  frequently 


346  SANTO  DOMINGO 

called  the  attention  of  their  Congress  to  this  condition 
of  affairs.  The  prisons  at  Santo  Domingo  City  and 
Santiago  were  exceptions  to  the  rule;  they  were  im- 
proved even  to  the  extent  of  being  endowed  with  a 
prison  school. 

The  political  prisoners  were  generally  given  better 
accommodations,  if  there  were  any  at  hand,  and  had  the 
privilege  of  securing  their  meals  from  the  outside  in- 
stead of  being  limited  to  the  scant  and  repugnant  prison 
food.  During  revolutions,  however,  when  the  prisons 
were  overcrowded,  the  political  prisoners  were  kept 
in  irons  and  supervision  was  rigid.  According  to  law 
the  functionaries  of  each  court  of  first  instance  were 
supposed  to  visit  and  examine  the  jails  once  a  month, 
but  as  the  date  of  their  visit  was  known  beforehand 
the  inspection  was  little  more  than  perfunctory.  Not 
very  long  ago  it  was  whispered  in  the  Cibao  that  a 
judge  in  inspecting  a  jail  accidentally  passed  through  a 
door  to  a  room  he  was  evidently  not  expected  to  enter, 
and  there  to  his  own  embarrassment  and  that  of  the 
warden  found  a  score  of  prisoners  whose  names  were 
not  on  the  prison  rolls. 

The  more  serious  offenders  were  kept  in  irons.  The 
Dominican  authorities,  realizing  that  they  had  no 
reason  to  be  proud  of  their  prisons,  were  loath  to  per- 
mit foreigners  to  visit  the  jails.  When  I  called  at  the 
government  building  at  Sanchez  on  one  occasion,  how- 
ever, the  commandant  was  absent  and  an  indiscreet 
sergeant  offered  to  show  me  the  two  rooms  used  for 
prison  purposes.  The  building  was  a  wooden  one  and 
one  of  the  rooms,  though  heavily  barred,  did  not  seem 
unfitted  except  in  case  of  overcrowding,  which  I  was 
told  sometimes  occurred.  The  other  room  was  ex- 
tremely repulsive.  It  was  dark  and  a  foul  odor  rising 
from  a  hole  in  the  wooden  floor  demonstrated  the  truth 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  347 

of  the  guide's  remark  that  there  was  no  outhouse  for 
the  use  of  the  prisoners.  Along  one  side  of  this  room 
lay  two  long  square-cut  beams,  one  on  the  other,  scal- 
loped out  so  as  to  form  a  number  of  round  holes  along 
their  juncture.  It  was  evident  they  were  used  as  stocks 
and  my  guide  stated  that  he  had  seen  a  whole  row  of 
men  sitting  along  the  log  with  their  feet  thus  confined. 
One  or  two  of  the  holes  were  a  little  larger  and  it  was 
explained  that  they  were  for  the  purpose  of  confining 
not  the  feet  but  the  neck  of  the  delinquent,  and  that 
this  punishment  was  much  worse,  producing  especial 
pain  in  the  case  of  short-necked  persons.  The  severest 
pain  was  produced,  so  the  guide  stated,  when  the  de- 
linquent was  seated  on  the  beam  and  his  feet  placed 
crosswise  through  the  holes:  he  could  bear  the  agony 
of  this  position  for  only  a  short  time. 

The  American  authorities  have  made  great  improve- 
ments in  the  prisons  and  prison  discipline.  The  jails 
are  now  so  clean  that  they  are  almost  show  places. 

The  revolutionary  disturbances  have  seriously  inter- 
fered with  the  proper  execution  of  the  sentences  of 
the  courts.  It  was  a  usual  procedure  for  revolutionary 
forces,  upon  entering  a  town,  to  free  the  prisoners — 
either  as  a  slap  at  the  government  or  in  order  thereby 
to  augment  their  own  strength.  In  Puerto  Plata,  a 
few  years  ago,  a  merchant  was  convicted  of  fraudulent 
bankruptcy  and  sentenced  to  three  years  in  jail;  soon 
afterwards  a  revolutionary  force  took  possession  of 
the  town  and  freed  the  prisoners;  and  a  few  hours  later 
the  townspeople  were  amused  to  see  the  lawyer  who 
had  been  instrumental  in  securing  the  conviction  him- 
self led  to  prison  at  the  instigation  of  the  culprit. 

In  March,  1903,  when  the  political  prisoners  in  the 
Santo  Domingo  prison  broke  out,  they  released  the 
convicts,  some  of  whom  retained  their  gyves  during 


348  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  fighting  which  followed,  until  the  revolution  was 
successful  several  days  later. 

The  undeveloped  state  of  the  country  has  offered 
difficulties  to  the  apprehension  of  criminals,  and  the 
proper  enforcement  of  the  law.  Could  a  criminal  but 
reach  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  which  are  almost 
entirely  uninhabited,  he  would  be  safe  from  pursuit  and 
might  either  wait  to  join  the  next  uprising  or  proceed 
to  a  different  part  of  the  country,  where  he  was  un- 
known and  where,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  intercourse, 
detection  would  be  unlikely.  Instances  have  occurred 
more  than  once  where  an  escaped  malefactor  has  be- 
come a  "general"  of  other  outlaws  and  by  threatening 
to  raise  an  insurrection  has  induced  the  government  to 
pardon  him  and  his  associates. 

In  several  regions  there  were  up  to  the  time  of  the 
American  occupation  local  caciques  who  were  almost 
absolute  monarchs  in  their  district.  They  and  their 
followers  considered  themselves  above  the  law  and 
their  power  and  influence  were  such  that  the  govern- 
ment in  the  capital  preferred  to  let  them  alone  so  long 
as  they  kept  within  bounds.  Such  gentlemen  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  favor  the  American  administra- 
tion for  they  have  been  made  to  understand  that  their 
rights  and  remedies  are  no  more  than  those  of  other 
citizens. 

In  view  of  such  conditions  so  favorable  to  wrong- 
doers, the  low  criminal  record  of  Santo  Domingo  is  all 
the  more  remarkable  and  speaks  highly  for  the  char- 
acter of  the  population.  Crimes  evincing  malice  and  a 
depraved  disposition  are  exceedingly  rare.  The  Do- 
minican boasts  that  it  is  possible  to  travel  without  fear 
from  one  end  of  the  Republic  to  the  other,  though 
unarmed  and  carrying  large  sums  of  money.  The 
few  attacks  on  travelers  which  are  on  record  have 


LAW  AND  JUSTICE  349 

generally  been  due  to  revenge  or  some  other  personal 
motive.  There  is  petty  thievery,  but  no  more  than 
anywhere  else.  A  friend  of  mine  used  to  remark  that 
he  had  never  seen  so  many  chickens  in  a  community 
where  there  were  so  many  negroes.  No  criminal  is  so 
greatly  despised  as  a  thief,  and  to  accuse  a  person  of 
being  "mean  enough  to  steal  a  pig"  is  a  mortal  insult. 
A  distinction  is  made,  however,  between  public  honesty 
and  private  honesty,  and  the  impression  has  been  only 
too  general  that  stealing  from  the  state  is  not  stealing. 

The  most  common  serious  offenses  are  homicide  and 
assaults  committed  in  sudden  quarrel  or  due  to  jealousy. 
Not  a  little  mischief  was .  caused  by  the  unfortunate 
habit  of  going  armed. 

The  attractions  of  the  fair  sex  give  rise  not  only  to 
crimes  of  jealous  passion,  but  also  to  other  missteps, 
such  as  seduction  and  similar  offenses.  The  average  of 
these  is  not  greater,  however,  than  in  other  southern 
countries. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


Financial  situation  in  1905. — Causes  of  debt. — Amount  of  debt. — Bonded 
debt. — Liquidated  debt. — Floating  debt. — Declared  claims. — Unde- 
clared claims. — Surrender  of  Puerto  Plata  custom-house. — Fiscal  con- 
vention of  1905. — Modus  vivendi. — Negotiations  for  adjustment  of 
debt. — New  bond  issue. — Fiscal  treaty  of  1907. — Adjustment  with 
creditors. — 1912  loan. — Present  financial  situation. 

Rarely  have  the  fiscal  affairs  of  a  country  experienced 
so  rapid  and  radical  a  change  for  the  better  as  those  of 
Santo  Domingo  since  1904,  and  rarely  has  a  financial 
measure  so  quickly  proved  its  efficacy  as  the  fiscal 
convention  between  the  United  States  and  Santo 
Domingo.  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1905  Santo 
Domingo  had  fallen  to  the  lowest  depths  of  bankruptcy 
and  financial  discredit.  After  decades  of  civil  dis- 
turbance, misrule  and  reckless  debt  contraction,  the 
deluge  had  come.  The  substance  of  the  country  had 
been  wasted  in  military  expenditures;  agriculture  and 
commerce  were  stagnant;  a  debt  of  over  $30,000,000 
had  been  contracted  with  nothing  to  show  for  it  but 
forty-two  miles  of  narrow-gauge  railroad  and  two  small 
gunboats;  the  government  obligations  were  chronically 
in  default  and  interest  charges  were  piling  up  at  ruin- 
ous rates;  every  port  of  the  Republic  was  pledged  to 
foreign  creditors  who  were  clamoring  for  payment; 
one  port  had  already  been  seized  and  the  occupation 
of  the  others  by  foreign  powers  was  imminent.  At  this 
juncture  the  Dominican  government  applied  to  the 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  351 

United  States  for  assistance  and  the  custom-houses 
of  the  Republic  were  placed  in  charge  of  an  American 
general  receiver,  with  the  obligation  of  reserving  a 
specified  portion  of  the  customs  income  for  the  credi- 
tors and  turning  the  remainder  over  to  the  Dominican 
government.  The  situation  immediately  changed  as 
if  by  magic.  The  imports  and  exports,  and  with  them 
the  income  of  the  government,  quickly  reached  higher 
figures  than  the  country  had  ever  seen,  the  national 
debt  was  scaled  down  by  almost  one-half  and  the  new 
Dominican  bonds  issued  in  1907  to  convert  the  old 
debt  went  nearly  to  par  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 

In  1904  the  Dominican  debt  was  a  maze  of  compli- 
cation and  uncertainty.  Not  even  the  amount  was 
accurately  known,  but  was  estimated  at  anywhere 
between  $25,000,000  and  $50,000,000.  The  govern- 
ment was  obliged  to  derive  its  information  on  the 
subject  from  the  creditors  themselves,  since  its  own 
books  were  so  defective.  During  the  financial  entangle- 
ments of  the  latter  part  of  Heureaux's  administration 
the  most  important  accounts  were  neglected.  The 
disturbances  which  followed  his  death  made  matters 
worse  and  the  change  of  employees  after  each  revolu- 
tion made  the  accounts  impossible  of  correction.  At 
the  end  of  the  year  1903  a  heroic  remedy  was  invoked 
to  restore  order  to  the  treasury  books.  In  forty-three 
important  open  accounts,  including  the  accounts  of 
several  bond  issues  and  of  the  Central  Dominican 
Railway,  with  balances  ranging  as  high  as  $4,829,236.25, 
no  entries  had  been  made  for  years  though  transactions 
had  been  going  on  all  the  time.  They  were  on  Decem- 
ber 31,  1903,  all  balanced  off  to  a  heading:  "Accounts 
which  remain  to  be  regulated."  Some  half  a  dozen 
have  since  been  placed  in  order  but  the  remainder 
will  probably  never  be  disturbed. 


352  SANTO  DOMINGO 

The  large  public  debt  was  in  part  funded,  in  part 
floating,  of  a  nominal  value  much  in  excess  of  its  real 
value,  bearing  a  high  rate  of  interest,  but  in  default  both 
as  to  interest  payments  and  as  to  amortization  provi- 
sion. The  origin  and  growth  of  the  debt  was  due  largely 
to: 

(a)  Periodic  accumulation  of  floating  debt,  owing 

to: 

1.  Political  instability,  requiring  large  out- 

lays for  soldiery,  for  bribery  of  potential 
revolutionists,  and  for  suppression  of 
actual  revolutions. 

2.  Corruption  of  officials. 

3.  "Asignaciones"   or  pensions   to    mollify 

enemies  and  to  reward  friends  of.  the 
existing  regime. 

(b)  Usurious  interest  computations,  on  account  of: 

1.  "Bonus"  in  principal. 

2.  Extravagant  interest  rates. 

(c)  Interest  default  and  compounding  accumula- 

tions. 

(d)  Recognition  and  liquidation  of  excessive  or 

illegal   claims   as   a  condition   of  further 

advances. 

In  order  to  obtain  more  positive  information  with 
reference  to  outstanding  Dominican  indebtedness,  for 
use  in  connection  with  the  pending  fiscal  treaty,  the 
American  government  in  the  early  part  of  1905  com- 
missioned a  financial  expert,  Prof.  Jacob  H.  Hollander, 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University,  to  proceed  to  Santo 
Domingo  and  make  an  investigation  of  financial  con- 
ditions. Prof.  Hollander,  in  an  elaborate  report,  found 
the  amount  of  the  claims  pending  against  the  Dominican 
Republic  on  June  I,  1905,  to  be  $40,269,404.38,  dis- 
tributed as  follows: 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT 


353 


Bonded  debt £17,670,3 12 . 75 

Liquidated  debt 9>S9S»S3°-4° 

Floating  debt i»553»5°7-79 

Declared  claims 7.450,053 . 89 

Undeclared  claims 4,000,000.00 

Total  indebtedness £40,269,404.38 

f» 

The  bonded  debt,  as  above  designated,  comprised  the 
public  indebtedness  represented  by  outstanding  bonds; 
the  liquidated  debt  consisted  of  items  secured  by  inter- 
national protocols  or  by  formal  contracts;  the  floating 
debt  consisted  of  admitted  indebtedness,  neither  funded 
nor  secured,  but  evidenced  by  public  obligations;  the 
declared  claims  were  claims  presented  for  reimburse- 
ment or  indemnity  but  not  expressly  recognized  by  the 
government;  and  the  undeclared  claims  were  claims  of 
the  same  nature  not  yet  formally  presented.  A  brief 
description  of  each  of  these  items  will  afford  an  idea  of 
the  general  character  of  Dominican  financiering  and  a 
better  understanding  of  Dominican  history. 

Bonded  Debt.  The  bonded  debt  held  by  Belgians  and 
French  and  amounting  to  $17,670,312.75,  was  the  final 
outcome  of  eight  consecutive  bond  issues  floated  by  the 
Republic,  as  follows: 


Name 

Hartmont  loan 
Westendorp  loan 
Railway  loan 

4  per  cent  consolidated  gold  bonds 
4  per  cent  gold  debentures 
French-American  reclamation  con- 
sols 

Obligations  or  de  Saint  Domingue 
Dominican  unified  debt  4  per  cent 
bonds 


Interest 

Term 

Amount 

per  cent 

years 

£   757.700 

6 

25 

£  770,000 

6 

30 

£  900,000 

6 

56 

£2,035,000 

4 

66 

£1,250,000 

4 

66 

£1,250,000 

4 

66 

£1,750,000 

4 

66 

[  £2,736,750 

2K 

IO2 

1  £1,500,000 

4 

83 

354  SANTO  DOMINGO 

In  making  its  very  first  loan,  in  1869,  the  Dominican 
government  fell  into  the  hands  of  sharpers  and  was 
mercilessly  fleeced.  The  bargain,  even  if  it  had  been 
honestly  carried  out,  was  improvident  enough.  Re- 
duced to  American  money  the  nominal  amount  of  the 
loan  was  $3,788,500;  of  this  amount  the  Republic  was 
to  receive  but  $1,600,000;  yet  it  contracted  to  pay  as 
interest  and  sinking  fund  in  twenty-five  years  a  sum 
amounting  to  $7,362,500.  The  contractors  for  the  loan, 
Hartmont  &  Co.,  of  London,  were  authorized  to  retain 
$500,000  as  their  commission.  In  fact,  however,  no 
more  than  $190,455  was  ever  paid  to  the  Dominican 
government.  The  brokers  claimed  that  they  tendered 
a  further  sum  of  $1,055,500,  though  after  the  expiration 
of  the  time  limited  in  their  contract,  and  that  the  tender 
was  refused  because  of  negotiations  then  under  way 
for  the  annexation  of  the  Republic  to  the  United  States, 
but  such  tender  is  denied  on  the  Dominican  side.  At 
all  events,  the  loan  contract  was  cancelled  by  the  Dom- 
inican senate  in  1870  on  the  ground  of  non-compliance 
of  the  brokers  with  its  conditions  and  the  government 
made  no  payments  for  interest  or  sinking  fund.  The 
brokers  nevertheless  continued  to  sell  bonds  in  London 
and  pay  the  current  interest  with  the  proceeds.  In- 
cidentally in  addition  to  collecting  their  commission, 
they  turned  a  penny  for  themselves  by  taking  the  bonds 
with  their  friends  at  50  and  selling  them  to  the  public  at 
70.  When  the  Dominican  repudiation  of  the  bond  issue 
was  published  in  England  in  1872  a  cash  balance  of 
$466,500  still  remained  to  the  credit  of  the  Dominican 
government,  but  it  was  coolly  pocketed  by  the  principal 
agent,  who  claimed  it  as  a  set-off  against  alleged  dam- 
ages in  connection  with  a  concession  he  had  near  Sa- 
mana.  In  the  ten  years  of  anarchy  that  followed  in 
Santo  Domingo  no  attempt  was  made  to  straighten  out 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  355 

the  matter.  The  bonds  having  gone  into  default  in  1872 
dropped  lower  and  lower  until  they  reached  3  per  cent 
in  1878. 

The  setback  received  by  the  credit  of  the  Republic 
by  reason  of  the  defaulted  Hartmont  bonds  made  fur- 
ther bond  issues  impossible  for  a  number  of  years. 
Finally  an  Amsterdam  banking  house,  Westendorp  & 
Co.,  was  interested  and  in  1888  and  1890  floated  the 
second  and  third  bond  issues  for  £770,00x5  and  £900,000 
respectively.  The  object  of  the  second  issue  was  to 
retire  the  Hartmont  bonds  at  20  per  cent,  to  pay  a  num- 
ber of  floating  interior  debts  the  owners  of  which  were 
harassing  the  government,  and  to  provide  cash  for  the 
treasury,  principally  for  military  and  naval  expend- 
itures, while  the  third  issue  was  designed  to  secure  funds 
for  the  construction  of  a  railroad  between  Puerto  Plata 
and  Santiago.  For  the  purpose  of  providing  for  the 
service  of  the  loan  a  collection  office  known  as  the 
"caisse  de  la  regie,"  or  simply  "regie,"  under  the  man- 
agement of  Westendorp,  took  charge  of  the  custom- 
houses with  the  obligation  of  paying  a  certain  amount 
to  the  government  monthly  and  devoting  the  remainder 
to  payment  of  interest  and  sinking  fund  of  the  loans. 
The  arrangement  was  thus  similar  to  the  later  receiver- 
ship plan,  but  its  vulnerable  point  was  that  it  was  op- 
erated by  a  private  concern. 

The  first  instalments  of  interest  and  sinking  fund  on 
these  two  bond  issues  were  paid  from  the  proceeds  of 
the  bonds,  then  for  several  months  the  "regie"  supplied 
funds,  and  then  came  the  first  crash.  The  government 
was  ever  in  need  of  money  and  to  secure  the  same 
violated  its  agreements  by  seizing  certain  revenues 
to  pledge  them  to  local  merchants  for  advances,  and 
by  conniving  at  customs  irregularities.  As  a  result, 
after  paying  the  sums  for  the  budget,  the  "regie"  had 


356  SANTO  DOMINGO 

nothing  left  for  the  service  of  the  bonds  and  they  went 
into  default  in  1892. 

Westendorp  was  almost  ruined  by  this  occurrence  and 
became  anxious  to  draw  out  of  his  Dominican  entangle- 
ments. He  applied  to  Smith  M.  Weed  and  Brown  and 
Wells,  New  York  attorneys,  to  negotiate  a  sale  of  his 
bonds  to  the  United  States  government,  transferring 
also  his  right  to  collect  the  Dominican  customs.  The 
United  States  government  declined,  whereupon  Weed, 
Wells  and  Brown  organized  the  famous  San  Domingo 
Improvement  Company  under  the  laws  of  New  Jersey, 
the  claim  of  which  was  later  the  prime  factor  in  bringing 
about  American  intervention  in  Santo  Domingo.  Sub- 
sequently two  other  companies,  the  San  Domingo 
Finance  Company  and  the  Company  of  the  Central 
Dominican  Railway,  were  incorporated,  also  under  the 
laws  of  New  Jersey,  as  auxiliaries  of  the  Improvement 
Company,  but  they  were  all  managed  by  the  same  per- 
sons. The  San  Domingo  Improvement  Company  took 
over  Westendorp's  holdings  and  was  placed  in  control 
of  the  "regie."  A  fourth  bond  issue,  of  £2,035,000  was 
floated  through  the  agency  of  the  Improvement  Com- 
pany in  1893  for  the  conversion  of  the  outstanding  gov- 
ernment bonds.  The  Improvement  Company  also  com- 
pleted the  railroad  from  Puerto  Plata  to  Santiago, 
which  was  the  only  improvement  it  ever  effected  in  the 
Republic  and  this  it  did  with  Dominican  money.  It 
further  took  from  the  Republic  at  rates  very  favorable 
to  the  Company  a  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh  bond  issue, 
in  1893,  1894  and  1895  respectively,  aggregating 
#4,250,000,  for  the  payment  of  government  indebted- 
ness. The  obligations  paid  by  the  first  two  of  these 
issues  were  in  considerable  part  inflated  claims  against 
the  government,  capitalized  at  excessive  interest 
rates,  those  satisfied  by  the  1895  issue  arose  prin- 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  357 

cipally  out  of  indemnity  claims  made  by  France  for 
mistreatment  of  French  citizens  and  for  debts  due 
them. 

The  Dominican  government  took  no  warning  from 
previous  disasters  but  continued  in  its  course  of  reck- 
less debt  contraction.  In  order  to  equip  warships  and 
arsenals  it  borrowed  money  right  and  left  at  rates  of 
interest  which  ranged  anywhere  from  1 8  to  30  per  cent 
per  annum.  The  loans  were  guaranteed  by  customs 
revenues  which  the  creditors  were  authorized  to  collect 
direct  from  the  importer.  Thus  the  amount  collected 
by  the  "regie"  was  not  sufficient  to  provide  for  the 
service  of  the  ever  increasing  bonded  debt  and  in  1897 
there  was  another  default. 

The  old  remedy  of  a  new  bond  issue  was  to  be  tried 
again.  The  San  Domingo  Improvement  Company 
undertook  to  float  the  eighth  bond  issue  of  £2,736,750 
in  bonds  at  2%  per  cent  and  £1,500,000  in  bonds  at 
four  per  cent.  With  these  bonds  it  contracted  to  con- 
vert all  previous  bonds  then  outstanding,  to  pay  over- 
due interest  and  to  secure  for  the  government  over 
$1,000,000  in  cash.  President  Heureaux  issued  drafts 
on  this  presumption,  but  it  soon  became  evident  that 
it  would  be  impossible  for  the  Improvement  Company 
to  carry  out  the  contract.  The  company  blamed  the 
government  and  the  government  the  company.  The 
situation  quickly  became  chaotic.  Eventually  the 
conversion  of  the  older  bond  issues  was  completed, 
though  at  enormous  cost.  Bonds  to  the  value  of 
£600,000  were  absorbed  during  the  transaction  with  at 
most  a  cash  payment  of  $250,000  to  the  Dominican 
fiscal  agent  in  Europe.  In  the  meantime  the  govern- 
ment tried  the  experiment  of  a  large  emission  of  paper 
money  in  which  the  customs  dues  were  partly  payable. 
The  paper  depreciated  as  fast  as  it  was  issued,  the  rev- 


358  SANTO  DOMINGO 

enues  were  again  insufficient  and  the  new  bond  issue 
suffered  default  in  April,  1899. 

While  plans  for  further  action  were  under  considera- 
tion, President  Heureaux  was  shot  in  July,  1899,  and 
the  revolution  which  followed  his  death  made  Jimenez 
president.  The  new  administration  in  1900  entered  into 
a  contract  with  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Com- 
pany for  a  different  distribution  of  the  customs  rev- 
enues, but  a  condition  was  introduced  that  the  consent 
of  the  majority  of  bondholders  be  obtained  for  the 
funding  of  interest  up  to  1903.  A  large  number  of  Bel- 
gian and  French  bondholders  had  become  dissatisfied 
with  the  Improvement  Company,  however,  and  repu- 
diated the  contract  and  all  connection  with  the  Com- 
pany. In  Santo  Domingo,  too,  there  was  general  hos- 
tility towards  the  Improvement  Company  which  was 
regarded  as  an  associate  of  President  Heureaux  and  an 
incubus  on  the  development  of  the  country.  The  Com- 
pany claimed  it  had  secured  the  consent  of  a  majority  of 
bondholders  but  the  government  decided  it  had  not  and  in 
January,  1901,  President  Jimenez  issued  a  decree  exclud- 
ing the  Improvement  Company  from  the  custom-houses. 

The  government  now  made  a  new  contract  with  the 
Franco-Belgian  bondholders,  and  for  the  payment  of  its 
obligations  pledged  its  customs  revenues,  and  specif- 
ically the  income  of  the  ports  of  Santo  Domingo  City 
and  San  Pedro  de  Macoris.  But  if  there  had  been  de- 
fault before,  in  time  of  peace,  with  the  "  regie"  in  charge 
of  the  custom-houses,  there  was  still  less  money  avail- 
able for  the  creditors  now,  with  no  control  by  creditors 
over  collections  and  the  government  harassed  by  con- 
stant revolutionary  uprisings.  Small  partial  payments 
were  made  for  two  years  and  then  ceased.  As  the  Im- 
provement Company's  bond  holdings  became  the  sub- 
ject of  a  special  arrangement,  the  bonded  debt  of  the 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  359 

Republic  was  considered  to  be  that  held  by  the  French 
and  Belgian  creditors.  However  unsavory  the  debts 
which  gave  origin  to  the  bond  issues,  and  however  im- 
prudent most  of  the  bond  issues  themselves,  the  great 
majority  of  bonds  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  small 
holders,  innocent  third  parties  who  sustained  great  loss 
by  the  continued  suspension  of  payments. 

Liquidated  Debt.  The  liquidated  debt,  secured  by  in- 
ternational protocol  or  formal  contract,  Prof.  Hollander 
found  to  be  as  follows  on  June  I,  1905: 

San  Domingo  Improvement  Company  (American  and  British)  $4,403,532.71 
Consolidated  internal  debt  (chiefly  Spanish,  German  and 

American) i»737»i5i-35 

Internal  debt  held  by  Vicini  heirs  (Italian) 1,598,876.04 

Old  foreign  debt  (chitfly  Italian  and  Dutch) 365,183 .20 

Sala  claim  (American) 356,3 14 .  2O 

Vicini  heirs  (Italian) 242,716.32 

Italian  protocol 186,750.36 

Spanish-German  protocol 100,034.00 

B.  Bancalari  (Italian) 175,000  oo 

J.  B.  Vicini  Burgos  (Italian) 55,500.00 

Ros  claim  (American) 39.967.78 

Two  cacao  contracts  (chiefly  Dominican  and  German) 68,296  16 

Bancalari,  Lample  &  Co.  (Italian) i6»733  •  19 

Twenty-eight  minor  contracts  (chiefly  Spanish,  American 

and  Dutch) 249.475  •  19 

Total $9,595.530.40 

The  claim  of  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Com- 
pany was  secured  by  a  protocol  between  the  American 
and  Dominican  governments.  When  the  San  Domingo 
Improvement  Company  was  ousted  from  the  custom- 
houses in  1901,  it  immediately  appealed  to  the  State 
Department  in  Washington.  The  State  Department 
counselled  a  private  settlement  and  negotiations  with 
the  Dominican  government  dragged  on  for  almost  two 


360  SANTO  DOMINGO 

years.  The  Improvement  Company  claimed  no  less 
than  $11,000,000  for  the  bonds  it  held  or  controlled, 
for  its  interest  in  the  railroad  from  Puerto  Plata  to 
Santiago,  for  its  shares  of  the  extinct  National  Bank  of 
Santo  Domingo  which  it  had  purchased  at  the  govern- 
ment's request,  and  for  the  settlement  of  a  long  list  of 
minor  claims.  Arbitration  was  suggested  by  the  Com- 
pany, but  the  Dominican  government  finally  offered 
a  round  sum  of  $4,500,000  and  the  offer  was  accepted. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Republic  fared  better  under  this 
compromise  than  if  the  case  had  been  submitted  to 
arbitration,  for  though  the  Improvement  Company's 
demands  were  greatly  exaggerated,  its  position  toward 
the  government  was  that  of  a  careful  creditor  who  has 
kept  minute  account  of  all  transactions  as  against  a 
spendthrift  debtor  who  has  squandered  his  property 
with  little  or  no  record  of  his  expenditures. 

By  a  protocol  signed  January  31,  1903,  the  Domin- 
ican government  formally  agreed  to  pay  the  sum  of 
$4,500,000,  leaving  details  to  be  settled  by  a  board  of 
arbitrators  to  be  designated  by  the  American  and  Do- 
minican governments.  The  board  met  in  Washington 
and  rendered  its  award  under  date  of  July  14,  1904. 
It  fixed  the  interest  on  the  debt  at  four  per  cent  per 
annum  and  designated  the  custom-houses  of  Puerto 
Plata,  Sanchez,  Samana  and  Monte  Cristi  as  security 
for  the  debt.  In  the  event  of  failure  by  the  Dominican 
government  to  pay  any  of  the  monthly  instalments 
specified,  a  financial  agent,  appointed  by  the  United 
States,  was  authorized  to  enter  into  possession  of  the 
Puerto  Plata  custom-house,  and  if  its  revenues  proved 
insufficient  to  take  possession  also  of  the  other  custom- 
houses designated.  The  Dominican  government  never 
made  any  payments  and  the  financial  agent  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Puerto  Plata  custom-house  in  October,  1904. 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  361 

Most  of  the  other  claims  comprised  in  the  liquidated 
debt  had  their  origin  in  advances  made  to  the  govern- 
ment— often  bearing  interest  at  two  or  three  per  cent 
a  month,  or  even  more — and  in  indemnity  claims  for 
revolutionary  damages.  In  making  the  liquidations, 
musty  credits  and  a  generous  amount  of  compound  in- 
terest were  generally  included  and  it  was  usually  pro- 
vided that  the  sums  so  agreed  upon  were  themselves  to 
bear  interest.  The  greater  portion  of  these  claims  was 
held  by  foreigners,  Italian,  German,  Spanish  and  Amer- 
ican holdings  predominating.  Payments,  more  or  less 
feeble,  were  made  in  many  cases  on  account  of  principal 
or  interest  up  to  1903,  but  in  that  year,  when  the  gov- 
ernment was  reduced  to  desperate  straits  in  combat- 
ting insurrections,  practically  every  item  of  the  debt 
went  into  permanent  default. 

The  principal  Italian  claimants  were  the  heirs  of  an 
Italian  merchant,  J.  B.  Vicini,  and  an  Italian  in  busi- 
ness at  Samana,  Bartolo  Bancalari  by  name,  who  with 
other  Italian  subjects  became  loud  in  their  complaints 
at  the  non-payment  of  their  claims.  The  Italian  gov- 
ernment began  to  do  a  little  sword-clanking,  the  Italian 
minister  came  from  Havana  in  a  warship,  and  the  up- 
shot was  the  signing  in  1904  of  three  protocols  admitting 
most  of  these  claims  and  solemnly  promising  to  pay 
them.  Payment  of  the  internal  debt  held  by  the  Vicini 
heirs  and  of  the  Italian  revolutionary  claims  was 
guaranteed  by  five  per  cent  of  all  the  customs  receipts 
of  the  Republic,  the  revenues  of  Santo  Domingo  City, 
Macoris,  Sanchez  and  Puerto  Plata  being  specifically 
pledged.  The  Bancalari  debt  was  guaranteed  by  part 
of  the  customs  revenues  of  Samana.  Notwithstanding 
the  protocols,  no  payments  were  made  by  the  Domin- 
ican government. 

Floating  Debt.    The  floating  debt,  consisting  of  ad- 


362  SANTO  DOMINGO 

mitted  indebtedness,  neither  funded  nor  liquidated,  but 
evidenced  by  some  kind  of  public  obligation,  was  found 
to  be  as  follows : 

Registered  deferred  debt $  587,710.24 

Registered  floating  debt 140,850.27 

Privileged  revolutionary  debt 79,812. 12 

Certificates  of  comptroller's  office 633,124.60 

Certificates  of  treasury  offices 31.77'  -07 

Open  unsecured  accounts 80,239 . 49 

Total $i,5S3>507-79 

By  the  year  1902,  a  large  number  of  small  claims — 
many  of  them  for  supplies  furnished  and  services  ren- 
dered— had  accumulated,  the  justice  of  which  the  gov- 
ernment admitted  but  of  which  owing  to  the  deficiencies 
in  its  books  it  had  no  record.  Notices  were  accordingly 
published  calling  on  holders  of  such  lawful  credits  to 
present  the  same  for  registration.  This  was  the  origin 
of  the  so-called  registered  debts.  The  largest  item  was 
constituted  by  what  was  very  aptly  denominated  the 
"deferred"  debt,  created  in  1888.  Prior  to  that  time 
the  government  had  covered  its  military  deficits  with 
money  obtained  from  loan  associations  known  as 
"credit  companies,"  which  flourished  in  the  larger 
towns  and  which  did  business  at  an  interest  rate  that 
fluctuated  between  five  and  ten  per  cent  a  month. 
When  a  settlement  was  finally  made,  part  of  the  amount 
due  these  companies  was  paid  in  certificates  of  indebted- 
ness, the  law  directing  with  subtle  humor  that  they 
be  paid  from  the  annual  surplus  in  the  budget.  There 
never  was  a  surplus,  nothing  was  ever  paid,  and  the 
market  value  of  these  certificates  fell  to  three  per  cent 
of  their  nominal  value. 

The  revolutionary  debt  above  referred  to,  consisting 
of  claims  arising  in  the  revolutions  which  brought 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  363 

Jimenez  into  power,  was  called  "privileged"  because 
it  was  assigned  interest.  To  some  extent  it  was,  indeed, 
privileged,  for  partial  payments  were  made  until  the 
middle  of  1903.  The  government  certificates  forming 
part  of  the  floating  debt,  were  acknowledgments  of 
indebtedness  issued  by  the  government  when  it  was 
pressed  for  ready  money.  Many  bore  no  interest,  others 
bore  interest  as  high  as  two  per  cent  a  month.  In  view 
of  the  great  uncertainty  of  payment  the  amount  of  in- 
debtedness was  generally  either  frankly  or  disguisedly 
inflated  before  being  expressed  in  the  certificate.  Such 
certificates  were  sometimes  admitted  in  part  payment  of 
customs  dues. 

Declared  Claims.  Besides  the  admitted  indebtedness, 
there  were  many  claims  for  indemnity  and  reimburse- 
ment which  had  not  been  acknowledged  by  the  govern- 
ment in  contract  form.  Some  had  been  formally  filed 
with  the  government  for  the  payment  of  specific 
amounts,  while  others  were  still  general  demands.  The 
declared  claims  were  as  follows: 

Internal  revolutionary  claims $   885,258 . 10 

American  revolutionary  claims 71,000.00 

Spanish  revolutionary  claims 40,000.00 

French  revolutionary  claims 190,000.00 

Italian  revolutionary  claims 40,000.00 

German  revolutionary  claims 10,000 .  oo 

British  revolutionary  claims 5,000.00 

Cuban  revolutionary  claims 35,000.00 

Font  claim  (Spanish) 186,643 .00 

Heureaux  estate  claim  (Dominican) 3,100,000.00 

National  bank  notes 1,574,647.00 

Lluberes  contract  (Dominican) 250,000.00 

West  India  Public  Works  Company  claim  (British) 250,000.00 

Vicini  heirs  claim  (Italian) 812,505 .00 

Total *7»450,053  -89 


364  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Most  of  the  older  claims  of  indemnity  for  damages 
suffered  during  revolutions  crystallized  into  bonded  in- 
debtedness, were  recognized  in  government  contracts 
or  protocols,  drifted  into  the  old  foreign  debt,  or  were 
represented  by  certificates  of  indebtedness.  Some  re- 
mained, however,  and  their  number  was  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  disturbances  between  1899  and  1905. 
How  exaggerated  many  such  claims  were,  is  illustrated 
by  a  story  told  by  the  Danish  consul  in  Santo  Domingo. 
A  Danish  subject  came  to  him  and  complained  that 
government  soldiers  had  invaded  his  store  and  carried 
off  merchandise.  He  begged  the  consul  to  present  a 
damage  claim  of  $10,000  gold,  which  was  equivalent  to 
$50,000  silver.  The  consul  listened  to  his  story  and 
said :  "  You  are  asking  for  a  large  sum.  I  cannot  get  you 
that.  I  doubt  whether  I  can  get  you  more  than  $40, 
silver."  "Make  it  gold,  consul,"  was  the  immediate 
reply.  Many  other  claims  would  not  have  suffered  by  a 
similar  scaling  down.  Most  claims  were  for  houses 
burned,  cattle  killed,  horses  commandeered  and  fences 
and  other  property  destroyed  by  government  forces  or 
revolutionists. 

The  other  declared  claims  arose  principally  out  of 
alleged  violations  of  concessions  or  other  contractual 
obligations.  The  Heureaux  estate  claim,  advanced  by 
creditors  of  the  Heureaux  estate  and  based  on  the  prac- 
tical identity  of  the  accounts  of  Heureaux  and  those  of 
the  government  was  later  rejected  by  the  Dominican 
courts.  The  outstanding  national  bank  notes  were 
those  issued  by  the  defunct  Banque  Nationale  de  Saint 
Domingue. 

Undeclared  Claims.  The  undeclared  claims,  such  as 
had  not  been  formally  presented,  were  estimated  as 
follows : — 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  365 

American  claims £1,000,000 

British  claims 50,000 

Italian  claims 200,000 

Spanish  and  German  claims 200,000 

Other  foreign  claims 50,000 

Dominican  claims 2,500,000 

Total £4,000,000 

The  foreign  claims  were  principally  for  damages 
during  revolutions,  violations  of  contract,  failure  of  jus- 
tice, false  imprisonment,  etc.  The  principal  one  was  an 
American  claim,  that  of  Wm.  P.  Clyde  &  Co.,  of  New 
York,  of  over  $600,000  and  was  based  on  the  failure 
of  the  Dominican  government  regularly  to  enforce 
certain  high  port  dues  against  all  vessels,  save  those 
of  the  Clyde  line,  as  agreed  in  the  Clyde  concession. 
The  Dominican  claims  were  mostly  old  claims  for  un- 
paid salaries,  revolutionary  losses,  merchandise  fur- 
nished the  government,  etc. 

The  situation  towards  the  latter  part  of  1904  appeared 
hopeless.  Every  item  of  the  enormous  debt  had  been 
in  default  for  many  months  and  interest  was  accruing 
at  such  rate  that  the  whole  income  of  the  country  would 
hardly  have  been  sufficient  for  the  payment  of  interest 
alone.  Commerce  was  handicapped  by  high  wharf  and 
harbor  charges  collected  by  private  individuals  under 
their  concessions  from  the  government,  and  by  pro- 
hibitive port  dues  imposed  on  foreign  vessels  in  accord- 
ance with  the  concession  of  the  Clyde  line.  More  than 
three-fourths  of  the  debt  was  held  by  foreigners  who 
were  clamoring  for  payment.  The  general  revenues 
of  the  country  and  every  important  custom-house  had 
been  mortgaged  to  these  foreign  creditors.  In  general 
terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  ports  of  the  northern  coast 
were  pledged  primarily  to  Americans  and  secondarily 


366  SANTO  DOMINGO 

to  Italians,  those  of  Samana  Bay  primarily  to  Italians 
and  secondarily  to  Americans,  and  those  of  the  southern 
coast  primarily  to  French  and  Belgians  and  secondarily 
to  Italians. 

Only  one  of  the  international  protocols,  however, 
specified  when  the  custom-houses  to  which  it  referred 
were  to  be  turned  over  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
surrender  was  to  be  made.  The  others  merely  made 
the  pledge  in  general  terms,  further  negotiations  being 
necessary  to  render  it  effective.  The  exception  was 
the  arbitral  award  of  the  San  Domingo  Improvement 
Company,  which  determined  that  in  case  of  the  non- 
payment of  any  of  the  monthly  instalments  a  financial 
agent,  to  be  named  by  the  United  States  government, 
was  to  enter  into  possession  of  the  Puerto  Plata  custom- 
house. No  payments  of  instalments  were  made  by  the 
Dominican  government  and  in  September,  1904,  com- 
pliance with  the  terms  of  the  award  was  demanded. 
On  October  20,  1904,  the  vice-president  of  the  San 
Domingo  Improvement  Company,  designated  as  Amer- 
ican financial  agent,  was  placed  in  possession  of  the 
custom-house  at  Puerto  Plata. 

A  cry  of  dismay  ran  through  the  land  and  the  leading 
newspaper  of  Santo  Domingo,  the  "Listin  Diario," 
published  an  editorial  under  the  expressive  heading 
"  Consummatum  est."  It  was,  indeed,  the  beginning 
of  the  end.  The  other  foreign  creditors  now  pressed 
their  claims  with  more  vigor  than  ever,  and  the  prep- 
arations for  turning  over  the  Monte  Cristi  custom- 
house to  the  American  financial  agent,  accomplished  in 
February,  1905,  stimulated  them  to  greater  exertions. 
In  December,  1904,  the  French  representative  in  Santo 
Domingo,  acting  in  behalf  of  the  French  and  Belgian 
interests,  threatened  to  seize  the  custom-house  of 
Santo  Domingo  City,  the  mainstay  of  the  government. 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  367 

The  Italian  creditors  also  demanded  compliance  with 
their  agreements.  It  was  obvious  that  the  foreclosure 
of  these  foreign  mortgages  would  mean  indefinite  foreign 
occupation  and  the  absolute  destruction  of  the  Domin- 
ican government,  as  there  would  be  no  revenue  left  to 
sustain  it. 

In  this  difficulty,  the  Dominican  government  pro- 
posed that  all  the  ports  of  the  Republic  be  taken  over 
by  the  United  States.  The  negotiations  were  carried  on 
through  the  capable  American  minister  in  Santo 
Domingo,  Thomas  C.  Dawson,  and  on  February  7,  1905, 
culminated  in  the  signing  of  a  treaty  convention  which 
provided  that  all  Dominican  customs  duties  be  collected 
under  the  direction  of  the  United  States,  that  45  per 
cent  of  the  collections  be  turned  over  to  the  Dominican 
government  for  its  expenses  and  the  remaining  55  per 
cent  be  reserved  as  a  creditors'  fund,  and  that  a  com- 
mission be  appointed  to  ascertain  the  true  amount  of 
Dominican  indebtedness  and  the  sums  payable  to  each 
claimant. 

The  treaty  was  laid  before  the  United  States  Senate 
and  met  with  a  cold  reception.  In  the  United  States 
there  was  even  less  desire  than  in  Santo  Domingo  for 
American  intervention  in  Dominican  matters.  Further 
the  treaty  was  strongly  advocated  by  President  Roose- 
velt and  the  tension  then  existing  between  the  Senate 
and  the  President  endangered  many  of  his  measures. 
The  Senate  accordingly  adjourned  in  March,  1905, 
without  action  on  the  Dominican  treaty. 

It  was  the  darkest  hour  for  Santo  Domingo.  The 
creditors,  tired  of  waiting,  were  in  no  mood  to  admit  of 
further  delay  and  the  government,  totally  without  re- 
sources, was  in  no  position  to  appease  them.  Diplomacy 
was  equal  to  the  emergency  and  a  modus  vivendi  was 
arranged,  under  which  the  President  of  the  United 


368  SANTO  DOMINGO 

States  was  to  designate  a  person  to  receive  the  rev- 
enues of  all  the  custom-houses  of  the  Republic  and  dis- 
tribute the  sums  collected  in  a  manner  similar  to  that 
determined  by  the  pending  treaty,  namely,  to  turn  over 
45  per  cent  of  the  receipts  to  the  Dominican  govern- 
ment and  to  deposit  55  per  cent  as  a  creditors'  fund  in 
a  New  York  bank.  This  temporary  arrangement  went 
into  effect  on  April  I,  1905.  The  new  controller  and 
general  receiver  of  Dominican  customs  arrived  with 
several  American  assistants  and  soon  had  the  receiver- 
ship service  admirably  organized.  The  effect  was  imme- 
diate. The  creditors  ceased  their  pressure,  confidence 
returned,  interior  trade  revived,  smuggling  was  elim- 
inated, the  exports  and  imports  increased  and  the  cus- 
toms receipts  took  a  leap  upwards. 

It  was  believed  that  the  opposition  in  the  United 
States  Senate  would  be  diminished,  if,  instead  of  the 
United  States  both  adjusting  the  debt  and  collecting 
the  money  for  its  payment,  the  Dominican  Republic 
should  make  a  direct  settlement  with  the  creditors,  and 
the  United  States  merely  undertake  to  administer  the 
customs  for  the  service  of  the  debt  as  adjusted.  Ac- 
cordingly the  Dominican  government  appointed  the 
minister  of  finance,  Federico  Velazquez,  as  special 
commissioner  to  adjust  the  Republic's  financial  dif- 
ficulties. After  long  and  tedious  negotiations,  Minister 
Velazquez  and  his  able  adviser  Dr.  Hollander  evolved 
three  conditional  agreements: 

(1)  An  agreement  with  the  banking  firm  of  Kuhn, 
Loeb  &  Co.  of  New  York,  for  the  issue  of  fifty  year  5  per 
cent  bonds  of  the  Dominican  Republic  to  the  amount 
of  $20,000,000. 

(2)  An  agreement  with  the  Morton  Trust  Company 
of  New  York  to  act  as  fiscal  agent  of  the  Dominican 
Republic  and  as  depository  in  the  debt  adjustment. 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  369 

(3)  An  offer  of  settlement  to  the  holders  of  recognized 
debts  and  claims,  to  adjust  these  in  cash  at  rates  vary- 
ing from  10  to  90  per  cent  of  the  nominal  values  spec- 
ified in  the  offer.  The  nominal  aggregate,  as  rec- 
ognized by  the  Republic,  exclusive  of  accrued  interest, 
was  $31,833,510,  for  which  it  was  proposed  to  pay 
$15,526,240,  together  with  certain  interest  allowances. 

The  proposed  scaling  down  of  the  debts  provoked 
opposition  and  remonstrance,  but  the  creditors  wisely 
reflected  on  the  difference  between  a  bird  in  the  hand 
and  more  in  the  bush,  and  by  the  beginning  of  1907 
holders  of  credits  had  signified  their  assent  in  sufficient 
amount  to  assure  the  success  of  the  readjustment. 

A  new  convention  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Dominican  Republic  was  accordingly  prepared,  being 
signed  in  Santo  Domingo  on  February  8,  1907.  It  was 
ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  on  February  25, 
and  by  the  Dominican  Congress  on  May  3,  1907.  The 
Dominican  Congress  added  what  it  called  explanatory 
articles  to  the  law  by  which  it  approved  the  convention 
but  made  no  change  therein. 

This  convention,  a  copy  of  which  will  be  found  in 
the  appendix,  recited  that  disturbed  political  conditions 
in  the  Dominican  Republic  had  created  debts  and 
claims  amounting  to  over  $30,000,000;  and  that  such 
debts  and  claims  were  a  burden  to  the  country  and  a 
barrier  to  progress;  that  the  Dominican  Republic  had 
effected  a  conditional  adjustment  under  which  the  total 
sum  payable  would  amount  to  not  more  than 
$17,000,000;  that  part  of  the  plan  of  settlement  was  the 
issue  and  sale  of  bonds  to  the  amount  of  $20,000,000; 
that  the  plan  was  conditional  upon  the  assistance  of  the 
United  States  in  the  collection  of  custom  revenues  of 
the  Dominican  Republic;  and  that  "the  Dominican 
Republic  has  requested  the  United  States  to  give 


370  SANTO  DOMINGO 

and  the  United  States  is  willing  to  give  such  assist- 
ance." 

The  two  governments  therefore  agreed  that  the 
President  of  the  United  States  shall  appoint  a  general 
receiver  of  Dominican  customs,  who  shall  collect  all 
the  customs  duties  in  the  custom-houses  of  Santo 
Domingo  until  the  payment  or  redemption  of  the  entire 
bond  issue.  From  the  sums  collected,  after  paying  the 
expenses  of  the  receivership  the  general  receiver  is  on 
the  first  of  each  month  to  pay  $100,000  to  the  Fiscal 
Agent  of  the  loan  and  the  remainder  to  the  Dominican 
government.  Whenever  the  customs  collections  exceed 
$3,000,000  in  any  year,  one-half  the  excess  shall  be 
applied  to  the  sinking  fuad  for  the  further  redemption 
of  bonds. 

The  Dominican  government  agrees  to  give  the  gen- 
eral receiver  and  his  assistants  all  needful  aid  and  full 
protection  to  the  extent  of  its  powers.  The  United 
States  also  undertakes  to  give  the  general  receiver  and 
his  assistants  such  protection  as  it  may  find  to  be  re- 
quired for  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

The  convention  further  stipulates  that  until  the  pay- 
ment of  the  full  amount  of  the  bonds  the  Dominican 
Republic  is  not  to  increase  its  public  debt  except  by 
previous  agreement  with  the  United  States,  and  that 
a  like  agreement  shall  be  necessary  to  modify  the  im- 
port duties. 

Even  with  the  approval  of  the  convention  difficulties 
lay  in  the  way  of  the  debt  adjustment.  In  Santo 
Domingo  there  was  opposition  to  the  plan  by  inter- 
ested parties  and  by  persons  not  sufficiently  mindful  of 
past  errors  and  present  dangers.  The  Dominican  Con- 
gress mutilated  the  contracts  with  the  bankers,  who  not 
only  refused  to  accept  the  modifications,  but  declined 
to  treat  further  with  Minister  Velazquez  unless  he  were 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  371 

first  invested  with  plenary  powers.  The  Dominican 
Congress  then  extended  the  necessary  authority,  but 
it  came  late,  for  the  fall  of  1907  witnessed  a  money 
panic  in  the  United  States  and  the  floating  of  a  bond 
issue  was  impossible. 

After  months  of  negotiations  and  struggle  with  re- 
calcitrant creditors  Minister  Velazquez  and  Prof. 
Hollander  finally  perfected  an  arrangement  under 
which  the  creditors  were  paid  the  amounts  specified 
in  the  plan  of  adjustment,  twenty  per  cent  in  cash  and 
eighty  per  cent  in  bonds  guaranteed  by  the  fiscal  con- 
vention. For  the  purpose  of  the  cash  payments  the 
creditors'  fund  accumulated  under  the  modus  vivendi 
was  utilized.  The  bonds  were  delivered  to  the  creditors 
at  the  rate  of  98^  per  cent  of  their  face  value. 

Under  the  plan  of  settlement  the  outstanding  Franco- 
Belgian  bonds  and  most  of  the  other  debt  items  were 
redeemed  at  fifty  per  cent  of  their  face  value,  the  Im- 
provement Company's  claim  at  ninety  per  cent,  the 
deferred  debts  and  comptroller's  certificates  at  ten  per 
cent,  and  the  remaining  claims  at  rates  varying  from 
ten  to  forty  per  cent.  Accumulated  interest  was  re- 
mitted entirely  by  the  creditors,  except  in  three  cases, 
in  which  it  was  greatly  reduced.  These  terms  were 
much  better  than  the  Republic  could  have  expected 
from  any  commission  of  investigation.  The  arbitral 
award  of  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Company 
was  scaled  down  by  only  ten  per  cent,  because  the 
bonds  comprised  in  the  award  had  been  included  therein 
at  only  one-half  their  face  value  and  the  other  credits 
had  also  been  largely  reduced;  even  this  small  discount 
brought  howls  of  protest  from  British  interests  that  had 
remained  discreetly  silent  while  the  State  Department 
was  pressing  the  claim  thinking  it  completely  American. 
Payment  under  the  plan  of  settlement  was  soon  prac- 


372  SANTO  DOMINGO 

tically  completed.  Only  one  important  group  of  cred- 
itors, the  Vicini  heirs,  still  refuses  to  assent  to  the  plan 
and  accept  the  amount  set  aside  for  them. 

Upon  payment  to  the  San  Domingo  Improvement 
Company,  the  Company  turned  over  the  Central 
Dominican  Railway,  from  Puerto  Plata  to  Santiago,  to 
the  Dominican  government.  The  right  of  the  Samana- 
Santiago  Railroad  to  receive  a  percentage  of  the  im- 
port duties  collected  at  the  port  of  Sanchez  was  re- 
deemed by  the  delivery  of  $195,000  in  bonds  at  par,  an 
excellent  bargain,  made  all  the  better  by  the  circum- 
stance that  the  railroad  invested  the  proceeds  of  these 
bonds  in  the  extension  of  its  line  in  the  interior.  The 
restrictive  concession  and  heavy  damage  claim  of  the 
Clyde  Steamship  Line  were  also  cancelled,  and  the 
onerous  wharf  and  harbor  concessions  at  the  various 
ports  of  the  Republic  were  among  the  other  important 
concessions  acquired  by  the  government  by  means  of 
the  bond  issue. 

Thus  debts  and  claims  aggregating  nearly  $40,000,000 
have  been  and  will  be  discharged  for  about  $17,000,000. 
The  surplus  remaining  from  the  bond  issue  and  the 
modus  vivendi  collections  must,  under  the  agreements 
made,  be  devoted  to  public  improvements  approved 
by  the  United  States  government:  a  portion  has  been 
so  expended,  and  a  fund  of  over  $3,000,000  still  remains 
available.  In  addition  the  Republic's  credit  was  estab- 
lished on  a  high  plane;  burdensome  concessions  were 
redeemed  and  adequate  revenues  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  government  and  the  progress  of  the  country  were 
assured.  As  time  goes  on  proper  appreciation  will  be 
given  to  the  men  who  were  the  principal  agents  in 
securing  this  financial  and  economic  regeneration, 
especially  to  the  Minister  of  Finance,  Federico  Velaz- 
quez, and  to  Prof.  Jacob  H.  Hollander. 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  373 

While  the  fiscal  convention  largely  increased  the 
customs  revenues,  the  Dominican  government  made  no 
attempt  to  accumulate  a  reserve  fund,  but  spent  more 
even  than  authorized  by  its  ever  increasing  budgets. 
During  the  period  of  civil  strife  following  the  assassina- 
tion of  President  Caceres  in  1911  the  government,  in 
order  to  carry  on  its  military  campaigns,  neglected  to 
pay  the  salaries  of  its  civil  employees,  pledged  its  in- 
ternal revenues,  diverted  and  misapplied  amounts  of 
the  trust  fund  set  aside  for  public  works,  and  incurred 
indebtedness  for  supplies  and  materials  purchased  and 
money  borrowed.  It  thus  violated  the  spirit  and  letter 
of  the  convention  in  which  the  Dominican  Republic 
expressly  agreed  not  to  increase  its  public  debt  except 
by  previous  agreement  with  the  United  States. 

The  American  government,  in  its  unwillingness  to 
interfere  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Dominican  Re- 
public, had  suffered  the  Victoria  administration  to  seize 
the  government  in  Santo  Domingo  after  the  death  of 
Caceres,  and  it  now  also  condoned  the  violation  of  the 
fiscal  convention.  The  American  commission  which 
went  to  Santo  Domingo  in  1912  to  reconcile  the  warring 
factions,  found  that  an  essential  condition  of  the  restora- 
tion of  peace  and  the  rehabilitation  of  the  government 
was  the  payment  of  pending  salaries  and  certain  other 
debts.  Accordingly  the  United  States  consented  to  an 
increase  of  the  Dominican  public  debt  by  $1,500,000, 
and  the  Dominican  government  contracted  a  loan  to 
that  amount  with  the  National  City  Bank  of  New  York, 
which  took  the  bonds  at  97  V£  per  cent.  The  bonds  bore 
6  per  cent  interest,  and  for  the  service  of  interest  and 
sinking  fund,  it  was  agreed  that  the  general  receiver  of 
customs  pay  over  to  the  Bank,  beginning  in  January, 
1913,  a  monthly  sum  of  $30,000.  This  bond  issue  was 
finally  liquidated  in  1917. 


374  SANTO  DOMINGO 

The  amount  so  borrowed  was  not  sufficient  to  pay  all 
the  indebtedness  of  the  Dominican  government.  The 
manner  of  circumventing  the  debt  increase  prohibition 
of  the  convention  having  been  discovered,  the  interior 
debt  was  further  augmented  after  that  time  by  failure 
to  pay  salaries,  by  hypothecating  stamps  and  stamped 
paper,  and  by  contracting  other  obligations,  either  to 
combat  insurrections  or  because  of  less  worthy  motives. 
In  addition,  claims  for  revolutionary  damages  were  filed 
against  the  government. 

The  foreign  debt  thus  consists  merely  of  the 
$20,000,000  customs  administration  loan  of  1907.  The 
sums  paid  into  the  sinking  fund  of  this  loan  have  been 
used  to  purchase  bonds  of  this  issue  at  their  market 
price,  somewhat  less  than  par,  and  the  interest  falling 
due  on  such  purchased  bonds  has  also  gone  to  swell  the 
sinking  fund.  The  value  of  the  assets  in  the  sinking 
fund  on  December  31,  1917,  estimating  the  purchased 
customs  administration  bonds  at  par,  was  36,019,161.50, 
exclusive  of  interest  accruals  in  1917. 

The  interior  debt,  as  a  result  of  revolutionary  con- 
fusion and  defective  accounting,  became  as  proble- 
matic as  in  days  of  yore  and  was  estimated  at  widely 
different  figures.  With  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  exact 
amount  and  making  provision  therefor,  the  military 
government,  in  July,  1917,  constituted  a  commission 
consisting  of  three  American  and  two  Dominican  citi- 
zens, who  were  charged  with  the  duty  of  investigating 
and  liquidating  all  claims  against  the  government 
arising  since  the  settlement  of  1907.  The  American 
members  appointed  were  J.  H.  Edwards,  acting  comp- 
troller-general of  Santo  Domingo,  chairman,  Lt.-Col. 
J.  T.  Bootes,  of  the  United  States  Marine  Corps,  and 
Martin  Travieso,  Jr.,  of  the  Porto  Rican  bar;  the 
Dominicans  were  two  attorneys,  M.  de  J.  Troncoso 


THE  DOMINICAN  DEBT  375 

de  la  Concha  and  Emilio  Joubert.  Claimants  were 
called  upon  to  file  their  claims  before  January  I,  1918, 
or  be  deemed  to  have  relinquished  their  rights.  The 
nominal  amount  of  the  claims  so  filed — comprising  all 
outstanding  internal  debts — is  a  little  more  than 
$14,000,000,  some  of  the  claims  being  for  indefinite 
sums.  This  figure  is  probably  greatly  exaggerated  and 
will  doubtless  be  subjected  to  drastic  revision  by  the 
claims  commission. 

The  customs  receivership  has  continued  to  render  in- 
valuable service.  In  peace  and  war  its  officials  have 
distinguished  themselves  by  a  highly  efficient,  tactful 
and  fearless  discharge  of  their  duties.  Up  to  1913 
appointments  to  the  service  were  determined  by  the 
fitness  and  experience  of  the  appointee  rather  than  by 
his  political  antecedents,  and  the  officials  appointed 
possessed  unusual  qualifications:  the  first  general  re- 
ceiver, Col.  George  R.  Colton,  who  held  until  1907, 
his  successor  W.  E.  Pulliam,  who  continued  until  1913, 
their  deputy  J.  H.  Edwards,  and  others,  were  experts 
trained  in  the  Philippine  customs  service. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

FINANCES 

Financial  system. — National  revenues. — Customs  tariff. — National  budget. 
— Legal  tender. — Municipal  income. — Municipal  budgets. 

The  financial  system  of  Santo  Domingo  is  character- 
ized by  an  inequitable  mode  of  obtaining  public  rev- 
enue, whereby  the  burden  of  supporting  the  state  is 
thrown  upon  the  poorest  classes  in  the  form  of  indirect 
taxes  upon  articles  of  necessary  consumption,  and 
wherein  taxation  of  property  or  contribution  according 
to  economic  capacity  plays  little  part.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  with  regard  to  municipal  taxation. 

NATIONAL  FINANCIAL  SYSTEM 

The  revenues  of  the  general  government  are  derived 
chiefly  from  customs  duties  and  secondarily  from  mis- 
cellaneous minor  sources.  There  is  no  direct  tax  on 
land.  Prior  to  1904  the  revenues  fluctuated  according 
to  the  state  of  tranquillity  of  the  country,  being  usually 
something  less  than  #2,000,000  per  annum,  but  im- 
mediately upon  the  establishment  of  the  American 
receivership  in  April,  1905,  they  went  up  rapidly.  The 
increase  has  continued  steadily  and  the  government's 
annual  income  now  amounts  to  over  #4,500,000. 

The  proportion  of  revenue  calculated  from  the 
various  sources  has  fluctuated  but  little  in  the  different 
budgets.  The  proportions  appearing  from  the  budget 
of  1916  are  here  shown,  as  well  as  those  of  the  budget 


FINANCES  377 

of  1910,  at  which  period  the  interior  revenues  were 
administered  with  less  leakage. 

Per  ctnt  of  total 

igio  1916 

Customs  duties 77.2  81 .7 

Impost  on  alcohol 6.8  4.4 

State  railroad 6.4  ... 

Revenue  stamps 3.  3.6 

State  wharves 2.1  4.4 

Port  dues 1.5  1.8 

Stamped  paper 1.4  2. 

Post  offices 7  .8 

Consular  fees .4  .9 

National  telegraph  and  telephones .3  .2 

Miscellaneous .2  .2 

Total 100.  ico. 

Almost  95  per  cent  of  the  customs  receipts  are  ob- 
tained from  import  duties.  The  present  customs  tariff, 
which  took  effect  on  January  I,  1910,  made  a  radical 
change  in  the  Dominican  tariff  system  and  was  a  step 
in  the  country's  financial  regeneration.  Theretofore 
the  Dominican  tariff  system  was  about  as  unscientific 
as  could  be  imagined.  It  had  been  a  tariff  for  revenue 
only,  in  the  sense  that  the  object  was  to  obtain  all  the 
revenue  possible  and  more;  accordingly  the  common 
necessities  of  life  were  most  heavily  taxed.  Originally, 
it  appears,  the  tariff  provided  for  the  payment  of  an 
ad  valorem  duty  on  goods  imported;  later  the  discre- 
tionary power  involved  in  the  appraisement  was  taken 
away  and  a  fixed,  arbitrary  value  was  assigned  by  law 
to  each  article,  and  on  this  value,  known  as  the  "  aforo," 
a  specified  percentage  was  payable  as  customs  duty. 
Successive  governments,  in  their  efforts  to  raise  money, 
gradually  increased  this  percentage  until  it  reached 
73.8  per  cent.  As  the  "aforo"  valuation  was  as  a 
general  rule  higher  than  the  real  value  the  imposition 


378  SANTO  DOMINGO 

of  so  elevated  a  tax  made  all  imported  articles  inordi- 
nately expensive.  With  respect  to  many  items  the 
lawmakers  overreached  themselves,  for  the  duties 
were  raised  far  beyond  the  point  of  maximum  re- 
turn. 

For  years  a  desire  prevailed  to  adjust  the  tariff  on  a 
rational  and  equitable  basis,  but  as  there  were  no 
statistics  and  the  government  feared  its  income  might 
be  reduced,  nothing  was  accomplished.  After  the 
establishment  of  the  receivership,  full  statistics  of 
imports  and  exports  became  available.  The  general 
receiver's  office  and  the  Dominican  government  ac- 
cordingly drafted  a  new  tariff,  to  which  the  American 
government  agreed  under  the  terms  of  the  fiscal  con- 
vention. 

The  new  tariff  is  based  almost  entirely  on  specific 
schedules;  only  in  exceptional  instances,  such  as  in  the 
case  of  drugs,  are  ad  valorem  duties  imposed.  There 
were  many  reductions  from  the  former  tariff,  especially 
on  articles  of  prime  necessity,  but  in  some  cases  the 
rate  remained  substantially  the  same,  while  in  a  few 
it  was  slightly  increased,  a  tendency  being  observed 
to  protect  home  industries.  On  the  whole  the  revision 
made  an  average  reduction  of  about  15  per  cent  as 
compared  with  the  former  tariff,  but  the  new  duties 
are  scientifically  distributed  and  after  a  year  of  com- 
mercial readjustment  the  revenue  reached  higher  figures 
than  ever  before. 

Less  than  6  per  cent  of  the  customs  receipts  are 
derived  from  export  duties.  Such  duties  are  imposed 
on  cacao  and  a  number  of  other  articles,  but  not  on 
sugar  or  tobacco.  The  tax  is  not  a  large  one,  but  the 
imposition  of  any  export  tax  is  deplored. 

Wars  and  crop  conditions  have  had  their  influence 
on  the  customs  receipts,  but  the  figures  continue  satis- 


FINANCES 


379 


factory,  as  appears  from  the  following  table  of  collec- 
tions since  the  establishment  of  the  receivership: 


GROSS  CUSTOMS  COLLECTIONS 

First  Modus  Vivendi  year,  April  I,  1905,  to  March  31,  1906, 
Second  Modus  Vivendi  year,  April  I,  1906,  to  March  3 1,  1907, 
Four  months'  period,  April  i,  1907,  to  July  31,  1907  (termina- 
tion of  Modus  Vivendi) 

First  convention  year,  Aug.  i,  '07  to  July  31,  '08 


Second  '08 

Third  '09 

Fourth  '10 

Fifth  'ii 

Sixth  '12 

Seventh  '13 

Five  months'  period  '14 

Ninth  fiscal  period,  Jan.  i,     '15 

Tenth      "         "  "           '16 

Eleventh"          "  "            '17 


'09. 
•10. 
'u. 

'12. 
'13- 
'*4- 

Dec.  31/14.. 
'15. 
'16. 
'17. 


$2,502,154.31 
3,181,763.48 

1,161,426.61 
3,469,110.69 

3,359.389.7* 
2,876,976.17 

3,433,738.9* 
3,64S,974-79 
4,109,294.12 
3,462,163.66 

1,209,555-54 
3,882,048.40 

4,035,355-43 
5,329,574-20 


With  regard  to  port  dues,  the  Dominican  govern- 
ment was  long  bound  by  a  concession  made  to  the 
Clyde  line  in  1878.  Upon  the  redemption  of  this  con- 
cession the  port  dues  were  in  1908  reduced  to  their 
present  figure. 

An  impost  on  alcohols  was  established  in  1905,  and 
ought  to  become  an  important  source  of  revenue.  The 
law  is  crude  in  that  it  taxes  the  distillation  rather  than 
the  sale  of  alcohol  and  does  not  sufficiently  guard 
against  fraud.  The  receipts,  which  in  the  beginning 
were  quite  promising,  fell  off  strangely  in  late  years. 

The  most  recent  sources  of  revenue  are  the  Central 
Dominican  Railway,  from  Puerto  Plata  to  Santiago, 
acquired  from  the  San  Domingo  Improvement  Com- 
pany under  the  debt  settlement  in  1908;  the  Moca 
extension  of  the  railroad,  finished  by  the  government  in 
1910;  and  the  wharves  acquired  by  the  redemption 
of  the  various  port  concessions.  These  properties  at 


380  SANTO  DOMINGO 

first  gave  the  government  a  handsome  revenue,  which 
later  diminished  in  a  suspicious  manner. 

The  budget  of  the  Republic  kept  pace  with  the 
growth  of  income,  but  the  appropriations  were  prac- 
tically all  for  personnel,  while  public  works  continued 
to  be  neglected  and  no  provision  was  made  for  future 
contingencies  or  the  establishment  of  a  reserve  fund. 
The  annual  budget  enacted  to  become  effective  July  I, 
1916,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

ESTIMATED  RECEIPTS 

Custom-houses:  Import  duties $3,500,000 

Port  dues 80,000 

Export  duties 220,000 

$3,800,000 

Imposts:  Alcohol 200,000 

Stamps 165,000 

365,000 

Communications:  Postage  stamps 36,000 

Telegraph  and  telephone 5>ooo 

Wireless  telegraph 5,000 

46,000 

Consular  fees 40,000 

Stamped  paper 90,000 

State  properties:  Ozama  lighting  plant 4,500 

State  wharves 200,000 

Rentals  and  post-office  boxes. .          1,000 

205,500 

Miscellaneous 6,200 


Total  estimated  receipts $4,552,700 

ESTIMATED  DISBURSEMENTS 
Service  of  public  debt $1,966,746.86 


Legislative  power 132,400.00 

Including  salaries  of  12  senators  and  24  deputies  at  $200 
pet  month. 


FINANCES  381 

Executive  power $   25,460.00 

Expenses  of  president's  office,  including  salary  of  presi- 
dent at  $800  per  month. 

Judicial  power 316,160.00 

Including  salaries  of  supreme  court  (with  a  chief  justice 
at  $250  per  month,  six  associate  justices  at  $160,  and  a 
state's  attorney  at  £200);  3  courts  of  appeals  (each  hav- 
ing a  chief  justice  at  $180  per  month,  4  associate  justices 
at  $140  and  a  state's  attorney  at  $180);  12  courts  of  first 
instance  (each  having  a  judge  at  $150  per  month,  a 
state's  attorney  at  ^130-^150,  and  one  or  two  judges  of 
instruction  at  $130);  3  courts-martial  costing  $2,916 
each;  70  justices  of  the  peace  with  salaries  ranging  from 
$25  to  $55  per  month;  and  jails  in  each  province,  the 
jailers  receiving  from  $35  to  $69  per  month. 

Department  of  Interior  and  Police 329,638.00 

Including  office  of  secretary  of  interior,  who  receives 
$320  per  month;  12  provincial  governors  with  salaries 
from  $160  to  $180  per  month;  53  communal  chiefs,  at 
$30  to  $60;  church  salaries  amounting  to  $3,600;  public 
celebrations  $5,100;  expenses  of  sanitation  service 
$15,000;  and  a  long  pension  list  amounting  to  $188,240. 
Most  of  these  pensions  are  of  $10,  $12  or  $15  per  month, 
but  7  widows  of  former  presidents  and  other  distin- 
guished men  receive  $100  per  month. 

Department  of  Foreign  Affairs 122,572 .00 

Including  office  of  secretary,  whose  salary  is  $320  per 
month;  ministers  to  the  United  States,  France  and 
Haiti  at  $500  per  month;  charge's  in  Cuba  and  Venezuela 
at  $250;  and  23  consuls  in  the  United  States,  Porto  Rico, 
Cuba,  Haiti,  St.  Thomas,  Panama,  Turks  Island,  Ja- 
maica, England,  France,  Italy,  Holland,  Spain  and  Bel- 
gium. 

Department  of  Finance  and  Commerce 356,678.04 

Including  office  of  secretary,  who  receives  $320  per 
month;  general  comptroller's  office;  10  treasury  agents 
with  salaries  from  $80  to  $112  monthly;  custom-houses 
(the  collectors  of  the  port  receiving  from  $80  to  $200  per 
month);  receiver-general's  office  $43,152  (the  salary  of 
the  general  receiver  is  given  as  $9,848.04  per  annum  and 
that  of  his  deputy  as  $5,988);  coast  guard  service  $6,000; 
wharf  repairs  $20,000. 


382  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Department  of  War  and  the  Navy $   593,815 .26 

Including  office  of  secretary;  12  military  posts  (the  com- 
manders receiving  from  $60  to  $150  per  month);  10  ar- 
mories #4,980;  military  instructors  #4,380;  president's 
staff  $12,380;  one  infantry  regiment  of  about  470  officers 
and  men  (the  colonel  receiving  $95  monthly,  the  men 
#15);  a  band  of  33  men;  a  police  force,  called  "republican 
guard"  of  about  800  officers  and  men  (salaries  ranging 
from  $200  for  the  brigadier  general  and  $140  for  the 
colonel,  to  $18  for  the  private);  2  military  hospitals 
$31,867;  a  machine  shop  $4,440;  port  captains  at  $50- 
$90  per  month,  and  doctors  at  $25-^50;  and  the  gunboat 
$26,444. 

Department  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction 318,208.00 

Including  office  of  secretary;  University  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo $23,700;  Santiago  professional  institute  $8,820;  2 
jail  schools;  subventions  to  many  municipal  schools, 
private  and  special  schools,  about  $180,000;  33  scholar- 
ships, $23,870;  pensions  $23,988. 

Department  of  Agriculture  and  Immigration 18,740.00 

Including  office  of  secretary;  experiment  fields  in  San- 
tiago $3,000;  weather  bureau  $3,980. 

Department  of  Development  and  Public  Works 332,596.00 

Including  office  of  secretary;  lighthouses  $13,282;  postal 
service;  telegraph,  telephone  and  wireless  service;  up- 
keep of  dredge  "Ozama." 

Chamber  of  Accounts 7,980.00 

Miscellaneous 61,872 .00 

Contingent  expenses 25,000.00 

Constitutional  assembly 10,000.00 


Total  estimated  disbursements,  besides  debt  service. . . .  $2,651,119.30 

The  figures  in  the  budgets  were  not  absolute  but 
were  subject  to  modification  by  transfer  of  appropria- 
tion through  presidential  decree.  The  contingent  ex- 
pense fund  and  the  military  appropriations  were  thus 
frequently  swelled  at  the  expense  of  other  services. 

The  budget  above  shown  was  the  last  one  enacted 
under  the  old  conditions.  It  was  never  applied,  but  is 


FINANCES  383 

given  as  a  sample,  because,  while  differing  only  slightly 
from  the  old  budget  which  continued  in  force,  it  better 
illustrates  conditions  at  the  beginning  of  American  oc- 
cupation. The  military  government  made  numerous 
changes  in  the  budget  and  rendered  the  appropriations 
for  salaries  of  the  president  and  cabinet  secretaries 
available  for  other  purposes,  as  the  American  naval 
and  marine  officers  now  performing  the  duties  of  these 
positions  receive  no  compensation  from  the  Dominican 
treasury.  A  comprehensive  new  budget,  the  first  one 
of  the  period  of  transition  and  providing  for  some  of 
the  innovations  recently  introduced,  was  expected  to 
become  effective  early  in  1918. 

For  the  purpose  of  bringing  order  and  efficiency  into 
the  collection  and  disbursement  of  the  public  revenues 
of  Santo  Domingo,  the  American  government  in  1913 
urged  that  it  be  permitted  to  designate  an  American 
comptroller  and  financial  adviser  and  the  Bordas  ad- 
ministration at  length  consented,  but  as  there  was  no 
legal  authority  for  such  action  and  as  the  appointee 
was  not  characterized  by  unusual  ability,  the  Jimenez 
administration  declined  to  continue  the  arrangement. 
During  the  present  military  government  and  under 
the  efficient  direction  of  the  acting  comptroller-general, 
J.  H.  Edwards,  valuable  work  is  being  done  in  revising 
the  accounting  system  and  generally  placing  the  coun- 
try's finances  in  order. 

All  the  accounts  of  the  Republic  are  carried  on  in 
American  money,  which  is  legal  tender  and  is  current 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  For  about  fifty  years  after 
the  declaration  of  independence,  coins  of  many  coun- 
tries, principally  Mexican  silver  and  Spanish  gold, 
were  in  circulation,  with  the  rate  of  exchange  con- 
stantly fluctuating.  In  1890  the  Republic  joined  the 
Latin  convention  and  in  the  following  year  through 


384  SANTO  DOMINGO 

the  then  existing  Banque  Nationale  de  Saint  Domingue 
issued  silver  and  copper  coin  to  the  value  of  about 
£200,000.  The  fall  in  the  value  of  silver  caused  de- 
preciation and  a  few  of  the  silver  coins  of  this  issue 
which  are  still  in  circulation  are  valued  at  forty  cents 
gold  for  five  francs;  the  copper  coins  at  a  little  less. 
In  1894  the  gold  standard  was  adopted  and  though  no 
actual  coinage  took  place  all  official  financial  transac- 
tions were  thereafter  based  upon  gold  values.  In  1895 
and  1897  President  Heureaux  issued  more  silver  coins 
or,  rather,  coins  washed  over  with  silver,  to  the  nominal 
amount  of  $2,250,000,  but  the  seigniorage  was  so  enor- 
mous that  the  issue  was  a  case  of  a  government  counter- 
feiting its  own  money.  The  rate  of  exchange  fell  to  five 
pesos  for  one  dollar  gold  and  this  is  the  rate  legalized 
by  the  law  of  June  19,  1905,  which  made  the  American 
gold  dollar  the  standard  of  the  Dominican  Republic. 

For  a  while  the  ordinary  smaller  business  transactions 
continued  to  be  based  on  silver  values.  On  a  trip  to 
Santo  Domingo  in  1904  a  friend  and  myself  were  driven 
from  the  wharf  to  the  hotel  and  the  coachman  asked  for 
two  dollars.  It  seemed  an  outrageous  charge,  but  we 
considered  ourselves  in  the  hands  of  the  Philistines,  and 
handed  over  an  American  two-dollar  bill.  "Excuse  me 
until  I  can  get  change,"  said  the  coachman  to  our 
surprise,  and  ran  into  the  hotel;  in  a  moment  he  re- 
appeared with  a  double  handful  of  coins:  "Here  is  your 
change,"  he  said,  "eight  dollars."  The  charge  had 
been  only  forty  cents  in  gold.  At  the  present  time 
American  money  is  the  basis  and  Dominican  silver 
and  copper  is  regarded  merely  as  fractional  currency, 
one  peso  Dominican  being  equivalent  to  twenty  cents 
American. 

At  various  times  the  Dominican  Republic  has  had 
disastrous  experiences  with  paper  money  issued  with- 


FINANCES  385 

out  sufficient  guarantees.  One  service  rendered  by  the 
Spaniards  during  their  occupation  in  the  sixties  was 
the  retirement  of  large  amounts  of  such  paper.  The 
troubles  accompanying  unsecured  paper  money  had 
been  forgotten  when  Heureaux  in  his  attempts  to  raise 
funds  floated  an  issue  of  a  nominal  amount  of  $3,600,000 
in  notes,  of  the  Banque  Nationale,  in  addition  to  a 
small  amount  already  emitted  by  the  bank.  Such 
demoralization  resulted  that  at  one  time  it  took  twenty 
dollars  in  paper  money  to  purchase  one  dollar  in  gold. 
The  national  bank  notes  having  been  demonetized, 
various  amounts  were  purchased  at  auction  by  the 
administrations  succeeding  Heureaux  and  destroyed, 
and  almost  all  the  remainder  has  been  redeemed  at 
five  to  one  under  the  1907  debt  settlement.  The  only 
paper  now  seen  is  American  paper  money,  which  circu- 
lates at  a  par  with  American  silver  and  gold. 

MUNICIPAL  FINANCES 

Like  the  national  government,  the  municipalities 
or  communes  depend  almost  entirely  upon  indirect 
taxation  for  their  revenues.  One  of  the  principal 
sources  of  income  is  the  tax  on  the  slaughter  of  cattle 
and  sale  of  meat.  The  communes  may  further,  with 
the  authority  of  Congress,  levy  a  "  consume "  tax,  a 
small  duty  on  the  imports  and  exports  of  merchants 
within  their  jurisdiction,  which  tax  has  given  rise  to 
much  confusion  and  controversy.  Business  licenses 
also  form  an  important  fount  of  revenue.  By  a  law  of 
Congress  (soon  to  be  superseded  by  a  decree  of  the 
military  government)  the  municipalities  are  divided 
into  several  classes,  according  to  their  importance, 
and  the  licenses  payable  by  the  various  kinds  of  busi- 
ness in  the  several  classes  are  designated.  The  national 


386  SANTO  DOMINGO 

government  turns  over  to  the  various  municipalities 
a  portion  of  the  impost  on  spirits  and  grants  educa- 
tional subventions  to  several  municipalities  for  their 
primary  schools.  Minor  sources  of  revenue  are  taxes 
on  lotteries  and  raffles,  vehicle  licenses,  amusement 
permits,  cockpits,  etc.  Two  towns,  Santo  Domingo 
and  Santiago,  have  municipal  lotteries.  Under  all 
these  taxes  a  man  might  own  scores  of  houses  and  great 
expanses  of  land  without  paying  towards  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  state  and  municipality  more  than  the 
poorest  peon  on  his  property. 

The  sums  collected  for  municipal  purposes  in  all 
the  communes  of  the  Republic  may  be  calculated  at 
about  $600,000  per  annum,  derived  from  the  following 
sources: 

MUNICIPAL  RECEIPTS 

Approximate  percentage 
of  entire  income 

Municipal  charges  on  imports  and  exports 177 

Business  licenses 15.3 

Markets 10.8 

Lottery  tax 10. 5 

Slaughter  houses  and  meat  transportation 9.2 

Alcohols 7.3 

Excises  (alcabala) 5 . 

Amusement  permits 3.5 

Public  register 3.5 

Lotteries 2.5 

Lighting  in  private  houses 2.3 

Ferryboats  and  bridges 2.1 

Municipal  property  and  rentals 1.8 

Miscellaneous 8.5 

100. 

The  largest  budget  is  that  of  the  capital  city,  with 
Santiago  second.  According  to  the  latest  figures  avail- 


Two  public  squares  of  Santo  Domingo  City 
Above:  Independence  Plaza 
Below:  Cathedral  Plaza,  decorated  for  a  holiday 


FINANCES  387 

able,  in  round  numbers  the  income  of  the  thirteen 
more  important  cities  and  towns  is  annually  about 
as  follows: 


Santo  Domingo $160,000 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros 90,000 

San  Pedro  de  Macoris 50,000 

Puerto  Plata 40,000 

La  Vega 30,000 

Moca 21,000 

Azua 20,000 

San  Francisco  de  Macoris 19,000 

Sam  ana 1 0,000 

Monte  Cristi 10,000 

Sanchez 10,000 

Bani 9,000 

San  Cristobal 8,000 


In  almost  every  town  the  largest  item  of  expendi- 
ture is  for  education,  the  maintenance  of  public  pri- 
mary schools.  The  more  important  cities,  especially 
the  capital,  make  fair  appropriations  for  street  repair 
and  other  municipal  public  works,  but  in  the  lesser 
communes  such  appropriations  are  negligible.  Very 
little,  practically  nothing,  is  appropriated  for  roads. 
Some  communes  pay  a  small  subvention  to  the  church 
and  assist  in  the  repair  of  church  buildings.  On  the 
whole,  municipal  services  are  only  scantily  looked 
after,  but  the  fault  is  due  more  to  lack  of  revenue 
than  to  improper  distribution.  Occasionally  the 
national  government  renders  assistance  in  the  con- 
struction of  some  work  pertaining  to  a  munici- 
pality. 

The  average  distribution  of  municipal  disbursements 
may  be  estimated  about  as  follows : 


388  SANTO  DOMINGO 

MUNICIPAL  EXPENDITURES 

Approximate  percentage 

of  whole  expenditure 

Education . 27.  i 

Public  works,  street  cleaning,  etc 27. 

Police 8.4 

Administrative  expenses  (salaries  of  municipal  officials  and 

cost  of  tax  collection) 7.5 

Public  lighting 7. 

Sanitation 4. 

Charity 2.  a 

Municipal  debts 1.9 

Miscellaneous 14.2 


100. 


In  view  of  the  lack  of  resources  or  interest  on  the 
part  of  municipalities  and  the  central  government, 
services  of  a  public  nature  have  frequently  been  as- 
sumed by  private  initiative.  Many  clubs  and  lodges 
maintain  schools.  Firemen's  corps,  where  there  are 
any,  are  volunteer  organizations.  For  charity  work, 
hospitals,  educational  work,  etc.,  local  committees 
are  formed  which  raise  funds  by  private  subscription 
or  by  lottery,  and  in  a  number  of  towns  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  plazas  is  in  charge  of  a  "junta  de  ornato." 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

THE    FUTURE    OF    SANTO    DOMINGO 

Attraction  by  the  United   States. — Political  future  of  Santo  Domingo. — 
Economic  future  of  Santo  Domingo. 

The  history  of  the  Dominican  Republic  affords  a 
striking  illustration  of  the  rule  that  large  bodies  attract 
nearby  smaller  or  weaker  bodies  whether  in  the  world 
of  physics  or  in  international  politics.  The  United 
States  of  America  had  scarcely  become  a  nation  when 
it  began  to  absorb  contiguous  territory  and  exert  a 
strong  attraction  on  Cuba.  With  respect  to  Santo 
Domingo  also,  there  was  such  attraction,  as  became 
evident  in  proposals  for  annexation  or  the  establish- 
ment of  a  naval  station.  At  times  it  appeared  that  the 
process  was  definitely  checked,  as  when  Spain  annexed 
Santo  Domingo  in  1861,  and  when  the  United  States 
Senate  refused  to  annex  the  country  in  1871,  and  when 
the  Dominican  Government  cancelled  the  Samana  Bay 
Concession  in  1874,  but  these  acts  merely  set  back  the 
clock  of  time  which  they  could  not  stop. 

When  Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  were  occupied  by  the 
United  States  the  attraction  exerted  on  Santo  Domingo 
was  powerfully  increased.  From  that  time  on  the 
Dominican  Republic  was  in  fact  a  protectorate  of  the 
United  States,  though  neither  American  nor  Dominican 
statesmen  would  have  admitted  it.  The  modus  vivendi 
of  1905  and  the  fiscal  convention  of  1907  gave  expres- 
sion, in  part,  to  relations  actually  existing. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  matter  is  that,  except  for 


390  SANTO  DOMINGO 

a  few  very  brief  intervals,  neither  the  United  States 
nor  the  Dominican  Republic  has  desired  closer  polit- 
ical relations  and  each  country  has  done  everything 
in  its  power  to  avoid  them.  The  1907  convention 
was  approved  in  the  United  States  Senate  with  only 
one  vote  to  spare,  and  many  of  its  supporters  fa- 
vored it  principally  because  it  was  expected  to  obviate 
the  necessity  of  further  American  intervention  in  Do- 
minican affairs.  It  was  believed  that  with  the  custom- 
houses removed  from  the  political  game  the  receipts 
and  prosperity  of  the  country  would  grow,  revolution- 
ists would  no  longer  be  able  to  finance  uprisings,  and 
civil  wars  would  cease.  The  convention  did  indeed 
augment  the  country's  revenues  and  prosperity,  but 
it  could  not  prevent  uprisings  entirely  nor  remove  their 
causes.  On  the  other  hand  it  strengthened  the  bonds 
between  the  United  States  and  Santo  Domingo  and  led 
to  the  military  occupation  of  1916. 

What  will  the  future  bring?  There  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  the  same  attraction  of  Santo  Domingo  by 
the  United  States  will  continue  with  greater  strength 
than  ever,  despite  all  that  may  be  said  or  done,  on  either 
side,  to  oppose  it.  It  is  a  force  which  cannot  be  over- 
come, and  had  best  be  recognized  and  reckoned  with. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  consider  the  sentimental  objections 
to  closer  political  relations  between  the  two  countries. 
Conditions  in  Santo  Domingo,  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  the  world  at  large  are  the  causes  of  this  force  of  attrac- 
tion, for  which  the  government  of  neither  country  is 
responsible. 

What  then  will  the  future  relations  between  Santo 
Domingo  and  the  United  States  be?  It  appears  that 
at  the  present  moment  a  plan  similar  to  that  tried  in 
Haiti  is  under  advisement,  namely,  to  restore  the  Do- 
minican government,  but  to  leave  the  custom-houses 


THE  FUTURE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO  391 

under  American  administration,  place  the  finances  under 
American  control,  appoint  an  American  supervisor  of 
public  works,  and  secure  the  peace  by  a  police  force 
under  American  officers.  The  real  relations  between 
the  two  countries  would  thus  find  further  expression 
in  the  creation  of  a  disguised  protectorate. 

As  a  permanent  solution  it  is  not  probable  that  this 
plan  will  prove  satisfactory.  It  tends  to  create  two 
independent  governments  in  the  same  country;  on  the 
one  side  the  Dominican  government  which  will  con- 
sider itself  supreme  and  sooner  or  later  resent  dictation 
or  lack  of  sympathy  on  the  part  of  the  American  offi- 
cials, and  on  the  other  hand  the  police  heads  and  other 
American  officers  who  will  brook  no  interference  with 
what  they  deem  their  duty.  Friction  is  bound  to  de- 
velop; it  is  impossible  for  two  independent  governments 
to  work  side  by  side  in  the  same  territory;  one  authority 
must  be  paramount.  At  first  the  plan  may  appear  to 
operate  successfully  because  the  desires  of  the  American 
officials  will  be  respected,  but  later  when  the  new 
Dominican  government  has  outgrown  the  novelty  of 
the  situation  there  are  certain  to  be  reciprocal  demands 
which  may  lead  to  opposition.  Another  possible  source 
of  difficulty  is  that  even  among  the  proposed  American 
officials  there  is  no  recognized  superior  and  that  here 
also  differences  may  arise.  Rather  than  go  so  far  and 
no  further,  it  were  better  to  attempt  less. 

The  ultimate  expression,  more  or  less  deferred,  of  the 
relations  between  the  two  countries,  will  most  probably 
be  a  clearly  defined  protectorate  with  an  amply  au- 
thorized resident,  or  outright  annexation.  Which  of 
these  two  courses  is  preferable?  From  a  standpoint  of 
the  interests  of  the  Dominican  people  annexation  would 
appear  better.  A  protected  state  has  many  obligations 
and  few  rights.  It  must  defer  to  the  wishes  of  the  pro- 


392  SANTO  DOMINGO 

tector,  but  the  protector  is  under  no  absolute  duty  to 
further  its  development  or  the  happiness  of  its  inhab- 
itants. On  the  other  hand,  when  annexed  to  the 
stronger  state,  it  may  expect  and  demand  that  interest 
be  shown  in  its  progress  and  well-being.  While  annexa- 
tion would  probably  entail  a  temporary  government  by 
officials  foreign  to  the  country,  American  traditions 
would  not  permit  such  a  condition  to  continue  for  any 
length  of  time  and  autonomy  would  eventually  come. 

From  an  American  standpoint  a  protectorate  would 
seem  preferable.  It  would  carry  the  advantages  of 
annexation  without  its  responsibilities,  without  the 
undesirable  feature  of  bringing  into  our  body  politic  a 
people  foreign  in  race,  language  and  customs,  and  with 
less  danger  of  stirring  up  South  American  susceptibil- 
ities. It  would,  however,  permit  of  less  latitude  for 
the  improvement  of  conditions  in  Santo  Domingo. 

For  some  time  to  come  it  is  probable  that  some  form  of 
protectorate  will  be  the  choice  of  both  parties.  Many 
American  statesmen  are  opposed  to  annexation,  and  the 
Dominicans  as  a  rule  would  prefer  the  phantom  of  sov- 
ereignty in  a  mediatized  republic  to  the  real  advantages 
of  annexation. 

It  is  only  natural  that  Dominicans  should  feel  sad 
at  passing  under  the  government  of  a  foreign  power. 
But  those  of  clearer  vision  recognize  that  there  is  no 
alternative,  that  the  independence  of  the  Republic  has 
long  been  a  fiction,  that  real  freedom  is  only  now  be- 
ginning to  dawn,  and  that  American  assistance  will 
give  the  greatest  impetus  to  prosperity.  For  several 
years  the  number  of  persons  taking  such  a  broader  view 
has  been  rapidly  increasing.  It  was  not  long  ago  when 
friends  of  mine  in  Santo  Domingo  would  lead  me  to 
the  middle  of  the  plaza,  out  of  hearing  of  any  eaves- 
dropper, and  then  with  bated  breath  confide  their  con- 


THE  FUTURE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO  393 

viction  that  the  only  salvation  of  the  country  lay  in 
the  United  States.  Ruin  and  sorrow  brought  by  the 
civil  wars  have  caused  such  ideas  to  spread  and  be 
openly  expressed.  At  present  it  may  be  said  that  many 
Dominicans  welcome  American  assistance,  that  the 
great  majority  accept  it,  and  that  only  a  small  minority 
are  bitterly  opposed  to  it,  and  these  objectors  are  prin- 
cipally former  politicians  and  revolutionists  whose  opin- 
ion counts  for  least.  The  number  of  those  favoring 
American  intervention  is  being  increased  by  the  splen- 
did administrative  work  of  the  present  American  au- 
thorities and  would  doubtless  be  still  further  augmented 
by  valuable  constructive  legislation  and  by  a  more 
uniform  display  of  tact  and  kindliness  on  the  part  of  all 
American  officials. 

These  relations  between  the  two  countries  impose  at 
least  a  moral  duty  upon  the  United  States.  They  make 
it  incumbent  upon  the  United  States,  as  far  as  is  in  its 
power,  to  foster  the  development  of  Santo  Domingo  and 
promote  the  happiness  of  the  Dominican  people.  One 
measure  it  should  adopt  is  the  granting  of  suitable  tariff 
concessions.  Another  measure  is  the  creation,  for  the 
administration  of  the  countries  dependent  on  the  United 
States,  of  a  corps  of  trained  men,  selected  and  retained 
without  regard  to  political  considerations,  thoroughly 
qualified  for  the  duties  they  are  to  assume,  speaking  the 
language  of  the  country  where  they  are  sent,  and  ca- 
pable of  a  sympathetic  understanding  with  the  inhab- 
itants. By  showing  an  interest  of  this  kind  the  United 
States  will  properly  fulfill  its  proud  mission  of  spreading 
liberty  and  prosperity  in  the  new  world. 

The  closer  relations  between  the  United  States  and 
Santo  Domingo  will  bring  that  country  one  boon  of  in- 
estimable value,  namely,  peace.  It  is  obvious  that  all 
the  troubles  which  have  befallen  the  Dominican  Re- 


394  SANTO  DOMINGO 

public  are  due  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  state  of  civil 
disorder  which  has  so  long  been  the  bane  of  the  country. 
Another  advantage  which  these  relations  will  bring  is  a 
proper  administration  of  the  country's  finances.  Peace 
and  efficient  administration  will  mean  the  multiplica- 
tion of  roads,  railroads  and  other  public  improvements, 
the  extension  of  education  and  a  rapid  advance  of  the 
people  and  development  of  the  country.  When  we 
think  of  the  vast  resources  of  Santo  Domingo,  the 
mineral  treasures  hidden  within  its  forest  covered 
mountains,  the  unlimited  agricultural  wealth  concealed 
beneath  its  fertile  soil,  the  enchanting  beauty  of  its 
scenery,  the  courtesy  and  hospitality  of  its  people,  its 
glorious  early  days  and  distressing  later  history,  we  must 
be  glad  that  the  clouds  which  have  so  long  shrouded  the 
land  in  darkness  are  definitely  dissipated  at  last  and 
that  the  sun  of  peace  and  prosperity  has  begun  to  shine. 

With  peace  assured  and  with  means  of  communica- 
tion provided,  it  is  easy  to  make  predictions  as  to  the 
economic  future  of  Santo  Domingo.  There  will  prob- 
ably never  be  much  manufacturing  but  agriculture  will 
increase  with  enormous  strides  assisted  by  streams  of 
foreign  capital  which  will  not  be  slow  to  realize  the  ex- 
ceptional opportunities  offered.  Sugar  growing  will 
probably  be  prefened  and  the  southern  plains  as  well 
as  a  great  portion  of  the  rich  Cibao  Valley  will  soon  be 
covered  with  waving  canefields.  Tobacco  will  also  re- 
ceive attention  and  perhaps  fruit  growing.  Cacao  and 
coffee  will  spread  more  slowly.  Prospecting  for  mineral 
wealth  will  be  undertaken.  The  extension  of  agriculture 
will  stimulate  commerce  and  augment  the  wealth  of  the 
people.  Within  a  few  years  the  country  will  become 
one  of  the  richest  gardens  of  the  West  Indies. 

The  curtain  has  gone  down  upon  the  epoch  of  rev- 
olutions, conspiracies,  civil  wars  and  destruction.  That 


THE  FUTURE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO  395 

period  belongs  to  the  past  as  definitely  as  the  era  of 
freebooters  and  pirates.  A  new  era  has  begun  for 
beautiful  Quisqueya,  in  which,  under  the  protection  of 
the  Stars  and  Stripes,  it  is  destined  to  enjoy  a  greater 
measure  of  freedom,  progress  and  prosperity  than  its 
inhabitants  have  ever  dreamed. 


APPENDIX  A 

CHIEFS  OF  STATE  OF  SANTO  DOMINGO 
1492-1918 

FIRST  SPANISH  COLONY 
Governors 

Admiral  Cristopher  Columbus,  viceroy 1492-1500 

Adelantado  Bartholomew  Columbus 1496-1498 

Comendador  Francisco  de  Bobadilla 1500-1502 

Comendador  Nicolas  de  Ovando 1502-1509 

Diego  Columbus,  Second  Admiral 1509-1515 

Licentiate  Cristobal  Lebron,  in  connection  with  Royal 

Audiencia 1515-1516 

Luis  de  Figueroa,  Bernardino  de  Manzanedo,  and 

Ildefonso  de  Santo  Domingo,  friars  of  the  order  of 

San  Jeronimo 1516-1519 

Licentiate  Rodrigo  de  Figueroa 1519-1520 

Diego  Columbus,  Second  Admiral 1520-1524 

Royal  Audiencia,  in  connection  with  judges  Caspar  de 

Espinosa  and  Alonso  de  Zuazo 1524-1528 

Governors  and  Captains-General 

(Note.  Owing  to  the  incompleteness  of  the  rec- 
ords the  following  list  probably  contains  in- 
accu  racies.) 

Sebastian  Ramirez  de  Fuenleal,  Bishop  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo and  Concepcion  de  la  Vega 1528-1531 

Royal  Audiencia I53I-I533 

Licentiate  Alonso  de  Fuenmayor,  Bishop  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo and  Concepcion  de  la  Vega 1533-154° 

Louis  Columbus,  Third  Admiral 1540-1543 

Licentiate  Alonso  Lopez  de  Cerrato 1543-1549 


398  SANTO  DOMINGO 

Licentiate  Alonso  de  Fuenmayor,  Archbishop  of  Santo 

Domingo I549-I5S6 

Licentiate  Alonso  de  Maldonado 1556-1560 

Licentiate  Cepeda 1560 

Licentiate  Veras 1560-1561 

Licentiate  Alonso  Arias  de  Herrera 1561-1564 

Antonio  de  Osorio 1564-1583 

Licentiate  Cristobal  de  Ovalles 1583-1590 

Lope  de  Vega  Portocarrero I59O-I597 

Domingo  de  Osorio. 1597-1608 

Diego  Gomez  de  Sandoval 1608-1624 

Diego  de  Acuna 1624-1634 

Maestre  de  Campo  Juan  Bitrian  de  Viamonte 1634-1646 

Nicolas  Velazco  Altamirano 1646-1649 

Maestre  de  Campo  Gabriel  de  Chaves  Osorio 1649-1652 

Bernardino  de  Menesets  y  Bracamonte,  Count  of  Pe- 

nalva 1652-1657 

Felix  de  Zuniga 1657-1658 

Andres  Perez  Franco 1658-1660 

Juan  Francisco  de  Montemayor  Cordova  y  Cuenca 1660-1662 

Juan  de  Balboa  y  Mogrovejo 1662-1670 

Pedro  de  Carvajal  y  Lobos 1670-1671 

Maestre  de  Campo  Ignacio  de  Zayas  Bazan 1671-1677 

Dr.  Juan  de  Padilla  Guardiola  y  Guzman 1677-1679 

Maestre  de  Campo  Francisco  de  Segura  Sandoval  y 

Castilla 1679-1684 

Maestre  de  Campo  Andres  de  Robles 1684-1689 

Admiral  Ignacio  Perez  Caro 1689-1698 

Maestre  de  Campo  Gil  Correoso  Catalan 1698-1699 

Severino  de  Manzaneda 1699-1702 

Admiral  Ignacio  Perez  Caro 1702-1706 

Licentiate  Sebastian  de  Cerezada  y  Giron 1706-1707 

Guillermo  Morfi 1707-1713 

Brigadier  Pedro  de  Niela  y  Torres 1713-1714 

Colonel  Antonio  Landeche 1714-1715 

Brigadier  Fernando  Constanzo  y  Ramirez,  Knight  of 

Santiago 1715-1723 

Colonel  Francisco  de  la  Rocha  y  Ferrer 1723-1732 


CHIEFS  OF  STATE  399 

Brigadier  Alfonso  de  Castro  y  Mazo 1732-1739 

Brigadier  Pedro  Zorrilla  y  de  San  Martin,  Marquis  of  la 

Gandara  Real 1739-175° 

Brigadier  Juan  Jose  Colomo I7S° 

Teniente  rey  Jose  de  Zunnier  de  Basteros 1750-1751 

Brigadier  Francisco  Rubio  y  Penaranda I75I~I7S9 

Field-Marshal  Manuel  de  Azlor  y  Urries I759~I77I 

Brigadier  Jose  Solano  y  Bote 1771-1779 

Brigadier  Isidore  de  Peralta  y  Rojas I779~I785 

Colonel  Joaquin  Garcia  y  Moreno 1785-1786 

Brigadier  Manuel  Gonzalez  de  Torres 1786-1788 

Brigadier  Joaqum  Garcia  y  Moreno 1788-1801 

FRENCH  COLONY 
Governors 

General  Toussaint  1'Ouverture 1801-1802 

General  Antoine  Nicolas  Kerverseau 1802-1803 

General  Marie  Louis  Ferrand 1803-1808 

General  L.  Barquier 1808-1809 

SECOND  SPANISH  COLONY 
Governors  and  Captains-General 

Brigadier  Juan  Sanchez  Ramirez 1809-1811 

Colonel  Manuel  Caballero  y  Masot 1811-1813 

Brigadier  Carlos  de  Urrutia  y  Matos 1813-1818 

Brigadier  Sebastian  Kindelan  y  Oregon 1818-1821 

Brigadier  Pascual  Real 1821 

STATE  OF  COLOMBIAN  REPUBLIC 

Governor  and  President 
Licentiate  Jose  Nunez  de  Caceres 1821-1822 

HAITIAN  RULE 

Presidents 

Jean  Pierre  Boyer 1822-1843 

Charles  Riviere  Herard,  aine 1843-1844 


400  SANTO  DOMINGO 

FIRST  REPUBLIC 
Presidents 

Central  Council  of  Government  (Provisional  govern- 
ment)    1844 

Pedro  Santana,  Provisional  and  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident   1844-1848 

Manuel  Jimenez,  Constitutional  President 1848-1849 

Buenaventura  Baez,  Constitutional  President 1849-1853 

Pedro  Santana,  Constitutional  President 1853-1856 

Manuel  de  Regla  Mota,  Vice-President 1856 

Buenaventura  Baez,  Vice-President 1856-1858 

Jose  Desiderio  Valverde,  Constitutional  President 1858 

Pedro  Santana,  Provisional  and  Constitutional  President  1858-1861 

THIRD  SPANISH  COLONY 
Governors  and  Captains-General 

Lieu  tenant-General  Pedro  Santana 1861-1862 

Lieutenant-General  Felipe  Ribero  y  Lemoine 1862-1863 

Brigadier  Carlos  de  Vargas 1863-1864 

Lieutenant-General  Jose  de  la  Gandara 1864-1865 

SECOND  REPUBLIC 
Presidents 

Jose  Salcedo,  Provisional  President 1863-1864 

Caspar  Polanco,  Provisional  President 1864-1865 

Benigno  Filomeno  de  Rojas,  Provisional  President 1865 

Pedro  Antonio  Pimentel,  Constitutional  President 1865 

Jose  Maria  Cabral,  Provisional  President 1865 

Buenaventura    Baez,    Provisional    and    Constitutional 

President 1865-1866 

Jose  Maria  Cabral,  Constitutional  President 1866-1868 

Buenaventura  Baez,  Constitutional  President 1868-1873 

Ignacio  Maria  Gonzalez,  Provisional  and  Constitutional 

President 1874-1876 

Ulises  F.  Espaillat,  Constitutional  President 1876 

Ignacio  Maria  Gonzalez,  Provisional  President 1876 


CHIEFS  OF  STATE  401 

Buenaventura    Baez,    Provisional    and    Constitutional 

President 1876-1878 

Cesareo  Guillermo,  Provisional  and  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident    1878 

Ignacio  Maria  Gonzalez,  Constitutional  President 1878 

Jacinto  de  Castro,  President  Supreme  Court 1878 

Cesareo  Guillermo,  Provisional  and  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident    1878-1879 

Gregorio  Luperon,  Provisional  President 1879-1880 

Fernando  A.  de  Merino,  Constitutional  President 1880-1882 

Ulises  Heureaux,  Constitutional  President 1882-1884 

Francisco  Gregorio  Billini,  Constitutional  President. . . .  1884-1885 
Alejandro  Woss  y  Gil,  Vice-President  and  Provisional 

President 1885-1887 

Ulises  Heureaux,  Constitutional  President  (4  terms) ....  1887-1899 

Juan  Wenceslao  Figuereo,  Vice-President 1899 

Horacio  Vasquez,  Provisional  President 1899 

Juan  Isidro  Jimenez,  Constitutional  President 1899-1902 

Horacio  Vasquez,  Provisional  President 1902-1903 

Alejandro  Woss  y  Gil,  Provisional  and  Constitutional 

President 1903 

Carlos  E.  Morales,  Provisional  and  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident    1903-1906 

Ramon  Caceres,  Vice-President  and  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident    1906-191 I 

Eladio  Victoria,   Provisional  and  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident    191 1-1912 

Adolfo  A.  Nouel,  Provisional  President 1912-1913 

Jose  Bordas  Valdez,  Provisional  President 1913-1914 

Ramon  Baez,  Provisional  President 1914 

Juan  Isidro  Jimenez,  Constitutional  President 1914-1916 

Francisco  Henriquez  Carvajal,  Provisional  President..  .  1916 

AMERICAN  INTERVENTION 

Military  Governor 

Rear-Admiral  H.  S.  Knapp 1916- 


APPENDIX  B 


OLD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  IN  USE  IN  SANTO 
DOMINGO 

The  equivalents  between  old  weights  and  measures  still 
in  use  in  Santo  Domingo  with  the  legal  or  metric  system,  are 
as  follows,  the  equivalents  with  American  measures  being  also 
given: 


Dominican  American 

Measures  oflength: 

I  league 3-46  miles 

I  ona 3  feet,  10.79  inches 

I  yard 35-996  inches 

I  vara 32.91  inches 

I  foot 10.945  inches 

I  inch 0.9055  inch 

I  line  l 0.0787  inch 

Surface  measures: 

I  tarea  * 0.1554  acre 

I  caballcria 186.50  acres 

Liquid  measures: 

I  bottle 0.7392  quart 

I  gallon 3 .3265  quarts 

Dry  measures: 

I  fanega 1 . 575  bushels 

I  almud 0.1596  bushel 

I  cuartillo 0.0328  bushel 

Weights: 

I  ton 2,028.232  pounds 

I  quintal 101 .412  pounds 

I  arroba 25-353  pounds 


Metric 

5.5727  kilometers 
1.1884  meters 
0.9143  meter 
0.836  meter 
0.278  meter 
0.023  meter 
0.002  meter 

628.86  sq.  meters 
75.4636  hectares 

720  grams 

3  liters  240  grams 

55  liters  500  grams 
5  liters  625  grams 
I  liter  156  grams 

920  kilograms 
46  kilograms 
11.5  kilograms 


1  12  lines  =  i  inch;  12  inches  =  i  foot;  3  feet  =  i  vara;  3  varas  «=•  i  vara 
conuquera;  20,000  feet  =  I  league. 

*  A  tarea  is  a  parcel  of  land  measuring  loo  square  varas  conuqueras.  It  is 
the  usual  measure  of  land.  300  tareas  =  I  peonia;  4  peonias  =  I  caballcria. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  403 

Dominican  American  Metric 

Weights: 

I  pound 1 .014  pounds  460  grams 

i  ounce 0.06338  pound,  or  1 .014 

ounces  avoirdupois  28.75  grams 

i  adarme 27.78  grains  1.8  grams 

I  grain  * o .  7706  grain  5  centigrams 

The  following  measures  are  cited  for  comparison: 

American  Metric 

Porto  Rican  cuerda 0.9701  acre  3930.4037  sq.  meters 

Porto  Rican  caballeria 194.02  acres  78.608  hectares 

Cuban  caballeria 33 .16  acres  13.4202  hectares 

Haitian  carreau 3 . 194  acres  12,928  sq.  meters 

1  36  grains  =»  I  adarme;  16  adarmes  =  i  ounce;  16  ounces  =  I  pound; 
25  pounds  =  i  arroba;  4  arrobas  =  i  quintal;  20  quintals  =-  I  ton. 


APPENDIX  C 

AMERICAN-DOMINICAN  FISCAL  CONVENTION  OF 

1907 

CONVENTION  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  AND 
THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  PROVIDING  FOR  THE  ASSISTANCE 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  COLLECTION  AND  APPLICA- 
TION OF  THE  CUSTOMS  REVENUES  OF  THE  DOMINICAN  RE- 
PUBLIC 

Concluded  February  8,  1907. 

Ratification  advised  by  Senate  February  25,  1907. 

Ratified  by  President  June  22,  1907. 

Ratified  by  President  of  the  Dominican  Republic  June  /<?, 

1907. 

Ratifications  exchanged  at  Washington  July  8,  1907. 
Proclaimed  July  25,  1907. 

BY  THE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

A  PROCLAMATION 

Whereas  a  convention  between  the  United  States  of 
America  and  the  Dominican  Republic  providing  for  the 
assistance  of  the  United  States  in  the  collection  and  applica- 
tion of  the  customs  revenues  of  the  Dominican  Republic,  was 
concluded  and  signed  by  their  respective  Plenipotentiaries  at 
the  City  of  Santo  Domingo,  on  the  eighth  day  of  February, 
one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  seven,  the  original  of  which 
conventibn,  being  in  the  English  and  Spanish  languages,  is 
word  for  word  as  follows: 

Whereas  during  disturbed  political  conditions  in  the 
Dominican  Republic  debts  and  claims  have  been  created, 
some  by  regular  and  some  by  revolutionary  governments, 


190?  FISCAL  CONVENTION  405 

many  of  doubtful  validity  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  amounting 
in  all  to  over  $30,000,000,  nominal  or  face  value; 

And  whereas  the  same  conditions  have  prevented  the 
peaceable  and  continuous  collection  and  application  of 
National  revenues  for  payment  of  interest  or  principal  of 
such  debts  or  for  liquidation  and  settlement  of  such  claims; 
and  the  said  debts  and  claims  continually  increase  by  accre- 
tion of  interest  and  are  a  grievous  burden  upon  the  people  of 
the  Dominican  Republic  and  a  barrier  to  their  improvement 
and  prosperity; 

And  whereas  the  Dominican  Government  has  now  effected 
a  conditional  adjustment  and  settlement  of  said  debts  and 
claims  under  which  all  its  foreign  creditors  have  agreed  to 
accept  about  $12,407,000  for  debts  and  claims  amounting  to 
about  $21,184,000  of  nominal  or  face  value,  and  the  holders  of 
internal  debts  or  claims  of  about  $2,028,258  nominal  or 
face  value  have  agreed  to  accept  about  $645,827  therefor, 
and  the  remaining  holders  of  internal  debts  or  claims  on 
the  same  basis  as  the  assents  already  given  will  receive 
about  $2,400,000  therefor,  which  sum  the  Dominican  Gov- 
ernment has  fixed  and  determined  as  the  amount  which  it  will 
pay  to  such  remaining  internal  debt  holders;  making  the 
total  payments  under  such  adjustment  and  settlement,  in- 
cluding interest  as  adjusted  and  claims  not  yet  liquidated, 
amount  to  not  more  than  about  $17,000,000. 

And  whereas  a  part  of  such  plan  of  settlement  is  the  issue 
and  sale  of  bonds  of  the  Dominican  Republic  to  the  amount 
of  $20,000,000  bearing  five  per  cent  interest  payable  in  fifty 
years  and  redeemable  after  ten  years  at  102^  and  requiring 
payment  of  at  least  one  per  cent  per  annum  for  amortization, 
the  proceeds  of  said  bonds,  together  with  such  funds  as  are 
now  deposited  for  the  benefit  of  creditors  from  customs 
revenues  of  the  Dominican  Republic  heretofore  received, 
after  payment  of  the  expenses  of  such  adjustment,  to  be 
applied  first  to  the  payment  of  said  debts  and  claims  as  ad- 
justed and  second  out  of  the  balance  remaining  to  the  retire- 
ment and  extinction  of  certain  concessions  and  harbor 
monopolies  which  are  a  burden  and  hindrance  to  the  com- 


406  SANTO  DOMINGO 

merce  of  the  country  and  third  the  entire  balance  still  re- 
maining to  the  construction  of  certain  railroads  and  bridges 
and  other  public  improvements  necessary  to  the  industrial 
development  of  the  country; 

And  whereas  the  whole  of  said  plan  is  conditioned  and 
dependent  upon  the  assistance  of  the  United  States  in  the 
collection  of  customs  revenues  of  the  Dominican  Republic 
and  the  application  thereof  so  far  as  necessary  to  the  interest 
upon  and  the  amortization  and  redemption  of  said  bonds,  and 
the  Dominican  Republic  has  requested  the  United  States  to 
give  and  the  United  States  is  willing  to  give  such  assistance: 

The  Dominican  Government,  represented  by  its  Minister 
of  State  for  Foreign  Relations,  Emiliano  Tejera,  and  its 
Minister  of  State  for  Finance  and  Commerce,  Federico 
Velasquez  H.,  and  the  United  States  Government,  repre- 
sented by  Thomas  C.  Dawson,  Minister  Resident  and  Consul 
General  of  the  United  States  to  the  Dominican  Republic, 
have  agreed: 

I.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  shall  appoint,  a 
General  Receiver  of  Dominican  Customs,  who,  with  such 
Assistant  Receivers  and  other  employees  of  the  Receivership 
as  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  in 
his  discretion,  shall  collect  all  the  customs  duties  accruing  at 
the  several  customs  houses  of  the  Dominican  Republic  until 
the  payment  or  retirement  of  any  and  all  bonds  issued  by  the 
Dominican  Government  in  accordance  with  the  plan  and 
under  the  limitations  as  to  terms  and  amounts  hereinbefore 
recited;  and  said  General  Receiver  shall  apply  the  sums  so 
collected,  as  follows: 

First,  to  paying  the  expenses  of  the  receivership;  second, 
to  the  payment  of  interest  upon  said  bonds;  third,  to  the 
payment  of  the  annual  sums  provided  for  amortization  of  said 
bonds  including  interest  upon  all  bonds  held  in  sinking  fund; 
fourth,  to  the  purchase  and  cancellation  or  the  retirement  and 
cancellation  pursuant  to  the  terms  thereof  of  any  of  said 
bonds  as  may  be  directed  by  the  Dominican  Government; 
fifth,  the  remainder  to  be  paid  to  the  Dominican  Govern- 
ment. 


FISCAL  CONTENTION  407 

The  method  of  distributing  the  current  collections  of 
revenue  in  order  to  accomplish  the  application  thereof  as 
hereinbefore  provided  shall  be  as  follows: 

The  expenses  of  the  receivership  shall  be  paid  by  the  Re- 
ceiver as  they  arise.  The  allowances  to  the  General  Receiver 
and  his  assistants  for  the  expenses  of  collecting  the  revenues 
shall  not  exceed  five  per  cent  unless  by  agreement  between  the 
two  Governments. 

On  the  first  day  of  each  calendar  month  the  sum  of  $100,000 
shall  be  paid  over  by  the  Receiver  to  the  Fiscal  Agent  of  the 
loan,  and  the  remaining  collection  of  the  last  preceding  month 
shall  be  paid  over  to  the  Dominican  Government,  or  applied 
to  the  sinking  fund  for  the  purchase  or  redemption  of  bonds, 
as  the  Dominican  Government  shall  direct. 

Provided,  that  in  case  the  customs  revenues  collected 
by  the  General  Receiver  shall  in  any  year  exceed  the  sum 
of  #3,000,000,  one  half  of  the  surplus  above  such  sum  of 
$3,000,000  shall  be  applied  to  the  sinking  fund  for  the  re- 
demption of  bonds. 

II.  The  Dominican  Government  will  provide  by  law  for 
the  payment  of  all  customs  duties  to  the  General  Receiver 
and  his  assistants,  and  will  give  to  them  all  needful  aid  and 
assistance  and  full  protection  to  the  extent  of  its  powers. 
The  Government  of  the  United  States  will  give  to  the  Gen- 
eral Receiver  and  his  assistants  such  protection  as  it  may  find 
to  be  requisite  for  the  performance  of  their  duties. 

III.  Until  the  Dominican  Republic  has  paid  the  whole 
amount  of  the  bonds  of  the  debt  its  public  debt  shall  not  be 
increased  except  by  previous  agreement  between  the  Domin- 
ican Government  and  the  United  States.    A  like  agreement 
shall  be  necessary  to  modify  the  import  duties,  it  being  an 
indispensable  condition  for  the  modification  of  such  duties 
that  the  Dominican  Executive  demonstrate  and  that  the 
President  of  the  United  States  recognize  that,  on  the  basis  of 
exportations  and  importations  to  the  like  amount  and  the 
like  character  during  the  two  years  preceding  that  in  which 
it  is  desired  to  make  such  modification,  the  total  net  customs 
receipts  would  at  such  altered  rates  of  duties  have  been  for 


408  SANTO  DOMINGO 

each  of  such  two  years  in  excess  of  the  sum  of  $2,000,000 
United  States  gold. 

IV.  The  accounts  of  the  General  Receiver  shall  be  rendered 
monthly  to  the  Contaduria  General  of  the  Dominican  Re- 
public and  to  the  State  Department  of  the  United  States  and 
shall  be  subject  to  examination   and   verification  by   the 
appropriate  officers  of  the  Dominican  and  the  United  States 
Governments. 

V.  This  agreement  shall  take  effect  after  its  approval  by 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States  and  the  Congress  of  the 
Dominican  Republic. 

Done  in  four  originals,  two  being  in  the  English  language, 
and  two  in  the  Spanish,  and  the  representatives  of  the  high 
contracting  parties  signing  them  in  the  City  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo this  8th  day  of  February,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1907. 

THOMAS  C.  DAWSON, 
EMILIANO  TEJERA, 
FEDERICO  VELAZQUEZ  H. 

And  whereas  the  said  convention  has  been  duly  ratified  on 
both  parts,  and  the  ratifications  of  the  two  governments  were 
exchanged  in  the  City  of  Washington,  on  the  eighth  day  of 
July,  one  thousand  nine  hundred  seven; 

Now,  therefore,  be  it  known  that  I,  Theodore  Roosevelt,' 
President  of  the  United  States  of  America,  have  caused  the 
said  convention  to  be  made  public,  to  the  end  that  the  same 
and  every  article  and  clause  thereof  may  be  observed  and 
fulfilled  with  good  faith  by  the  United  States  and  the  citizens 
thereof. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and 
caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  of  America  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,  this  25th  day  of  July  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  seven, 
and  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the 
one  hundred  and  thirty-second. 

[SEAL.]  THEODORE  ROOSEVELT. 

By  the  President: 
ROBERT  BACON 

Acting  Secretary  of  State. 


INDEX 


Acul  Bay,  4 

Agriculture,  144-158,  314,  382,  394 

Alcaldes,  341 

Alfau,  Felipe,  General,  52 

Altamira,  92,  213,  272 

Alto  Velo,  or  Alta  Vela,  114 

Alum,  139 

American  administration,  95,  96, 
130,  179,  200,  217,  230,  313,  316, 
317,342,347,348,374,393 

Amusements,  177-182 

Anacaona,  15,  19,  274 

Andres  Bay,  no 

Annexation  of  Dominican  Republic, 
to  Spain,  54-58;  to  France,  55;  to 
United  States,  55,  56,  62-65,  323, 

389^392 

Anse-a-Pitre,  50 
Apiculture,  158 
Aranjuez,  treaty  of,  29 
Arawaks,  i,  2 
Area,  of  island,  97;  of  Dominican 

Republic,  98;  of  Haiti,  98 
Arias,  Desiderio,  90-92 
Army,  3"-3i3»  382 
Art,  200,  205,  206 
Artibonite  River,  115 
Audiencia,  18,  32,  251,  336,  337 
Automobiles,  216 
Azua,  28,  29,  37,  45,  48,  50,  215,  216, 

'226,  273 
Azua    province,    population,     166; 

towns,  273-275 
Azuei,  Lake,  114,  115,  125,  126 


Babeque,  2 

Baboruco,  mountains,  119;  penin- 
sula, 113 

Baez,  Buenaventura,  five  times 
president,  49-55.  6 1-66,  315,  323, 
324,  400,  401;  picture,  opposite 
page  68 

Baez,  Dr.  Ramon,  89,  401 

Bajabonico,  211,  213,  272 

Balandra  Point,  105,  106 

Bananas,  157 

Bani,  in,  157,  227,  260;  plain,  121; 
street  scene,  facing  page  140 

Banica,  28,  115,  275 

Banks,  239,  240 

Barahona  city,  275 

Barahona  province,  population,  166; 
towns,  275,  276 

Baron,  Juan,  Colonel,  35 

Barquier,  L.,  General,  39,  399 

Basle,  treaty  of,  31,  32 

Bastidas,  Rodrigo  de,  explorer,  13, 
14,  251,  280 

Bayaguana,  28,  124,  125,  192, 
261 

Bays,  100-114 

Bearss,  Major,  U.  S.  M.  C,  92 

Beata,  Cape,  113;  Island,  113 

Bees,  103,  158 

Beler,  battle  of,  47 

Billini,  Francisco  Gregorio,  69 

Billini,  Francisco  X.,  priest,  189, 
289-295,  302 

Birds,  160 


4io 


INDEX 


Blanco,  port,  102,  272 

"Blue"  party,  68,  323,  324 

Bobadilla,  Francisco,  12,  13,  14,  397 

Bohechio,  3 

Bohio,  2 

Boil,  Father,  6,  7,  185 

Bois  Tombe,  115 

Bonao,  221-223,  266 

Bond  issues,  63,  70,  84,  353~359» 

368-374 
Bordas  Valdez,  Jose,  president,  88, 

89,  401 
Boundary  with  Haiti,  85,  98-100, 

114, 115 
Boya,  20,  261 
Boyer,  President  of  Haiti,  41,  170, 

173.  263>  399 

Buenaventura,  222,  223 

Buccaneers,  24,  25 

Budget,  municipal,  358-388;  na- 
tional, 334,  376-383 

Building  stone,  139 

Cabral,  Jose  Maria,  52,  61-63,  3^3, 
400 

Cabral,  Maximito,  92 

Cabrera,  initiated  War  of  the  Res- 
toration, 58 

Cabrera,  town,  103,  264 

Cabron,  Cape,  5,  105 

Cacao,  154,  155 

Caceres,  Ramon,  74,  75,  80,  84-86, 
401;  picture  opposite  page  68 

Caldera  Bay,  112 

"Calvario,"  190;  picture  opposite 
page  218 

Cambronal,  battle  of,  52 

Camu  River,  123,  209,  227,  265 

Cantons,  316,  317,  320 

Caonabo,  3,  7,  8,  9,  274 

Cape  Francais,  27,  30;  see  also  Cape 
Haitien 


Cape  Haitien,  4,  5,  43 

Caperton,  Rear-Admiral,  U.  S.  N., 

91 

Capes,  100-114 

Capotillo,  river,  115;  village,  58 

Car  lines,  216 

Carmichael,  Sir  Hugh  Lyle,  39,  in 

Carnivals,  181,  182 

"Casa  de  Colon,"  see  Columbus' 

House 

Catalina  Island,  109 
Cathedral  of  Santo  Domingo,  249- 

252,  278-284,  288-297;    pictures 

opposite  pages  250,  280;  diagram 

of  sanctuary,  290 
Cattle  raising,  161 
Caves,  109,  260 
Cayacoa,  3 

Cayos  Levantados,  105,  106 
Cazneau,  William  L.,  General,  55 
Central  Dominican  Railway,  210- 

2H»  372.  379 

Central  mountain  range,  118,  119 
Cession,  of  west  Santo  Domingo  to 

France,  27;  of  Spanish  colony  to 

France,  31 
Cevicos,  224,  266 
Charity,  189,  195,  196 
Chiefs  of  State,  397-401 
Christmas,  193,  194 
Christophe,  37,  39,  303 
Church,  Catholic,  185-195 
Church  property,  186-188 
Churches  of  capital,  249-254 
Cibao,  2,  120 
Cibao  road,  217,  218,  227 
Cibao  Valley,  120,  149,  394 
Cities,  167,  242-276 
Claims  commission  of  1917,  374 
Clergy,  188,  189 
Climate,  126-131,  148,  149 
Clubs,  180,  202,  206 


INDEX 


411 


Clyde  line,  229,  365,  372,  379 

Coal,  138 

Cockfights,  182 

Cocoanuts,  158 

Codes,  337-339 

Coffee,  156,  157 

Colombia,  41 

Columbus,  Bartholomew,  7,  10,  n, 
222,  243,  267,  281,  397 

Columbus,  Christopher,  discovery 
of  Santo  Domingo,  3;  shipwreck, 
4;  discoveries  on  coast,  5;  coloniza- 
tion of  island,  6-12;  viceroy,  5-12, 
397;  in  chains,  12;  return  to  Santo 
Domingo,  13,  16;  death,  16; 
transfer  of  supposed  remains,  31; 
descendants,  246;  burial-place, 
277-302 

Columbus,  Diego  (brother  of  Dis- 
coverer), 7 

Columbus,  Diego  (son  of  Dis- 
coverer), 17-19,  246,  278,  283, 
291,  301,  397;  palace  of,  246,  and 
opposite  page  250 

Columbus,  Louis,  21,  246,  278,  279, 
289-291,  300,  397 

Columbus  house,  17,  246,  247;  pic- 
ture, opposite  page  250 

Comendador,  115,  275 

Commerce,  232-241,  311,  351,  368 

Commission  of  Inquiry  to  Santo 
Domingo,  64 

Communes,  316-321 

Communication,  means  of,  207-231, 

314 

"Comunero"  lands,  147 
Concepcion  de  la  Vega,  see  La  Vega 
Concordat,  186 
Congress,  305,  307,   308,   314-316, 

380 

Conquest  of  Santo  Domingo,  1-20 
Conservatives,  46,  322 


Const  anza,  town,  266;  valley,  1 19, 122 

Constitution,  304-310,  314,  342 

"Conucos,"  148 

Copper,  136,  137 

Corsairs,  22,  24,  28, 104, 109 

Cotton,  158 

Cotubanama,  15,  16 

Cotui,  28,  37,  214,  224,  266 

Courts,  336-343»  38i 

Crimes,  348,  349 

Customs  collections,  237,  329,  351, 

368,  376-379 
Customs    receivership    by    United 

States,  82,  84,  237,  329,  351,  367- 

370,  374.  376-379 

Dajabon,  river,  100,  115,  124;  town, 

228,  273 

Dances,  177,  178,  180,  181 
Debt,  public,  350-375 
Deschamps,  Eugenio,  72,  78 
Dessalines,  Jean  Jacque,  emperor  of 

Haiti,  36,  37,  303 
Diego  de  Ocampo,  Mt.,  117 
Discovery  of  Santo  Domingo,  3 
Diseases,  130 
D'Ogeron,  25,  26 
Dominican  Republic,  declaration  of 

independence,  43 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  22,  in,  244,  279 
Duarte,  Juan  Pablo,  43,  46 
Duarte,  town,  260 
Duckworth,  Sir  John,  38,  ill 
Dunlop,  Col.,  U.  S.  M.  C,  92 
Du verge,  General,  48;  town,  276 

Earthquakes,  22,  29,  43,  142 

Easter,  195 

Education,  173,  195,  196,  197-203, 

206,314,382,387,  388 
Edwards,  J.  H.,  374,  375,  383 
El  Numero,  48 


412 


INDEX 


Elections,  305,  307,  315,  320,  327, 

328 

Enamorado,  Cape,  105 
Engano,  Cape,  109 
English  language,  171,  173 
Enrique  or  Enriquilio,  19,  20,  261 
Enriquillo,  Lake,  20,  125,  126,  276; 

town,  276 
Epiphany,  194 
Escondido,  port,  104,  113 
Espada  Point,  109 
Espaillat,  Santiago,  49 
Espaillat,  Ulises  F.,  66,  317,  400 
Espaillat  province,  population,  166; 

towns,  267;  name,  316 
"Esparia  boba,"  40 
Espanola,  3,  17 
Estrelleta,  battle  of,  47 
Executive    departments,     310-314, 

381-383 
Exports,  151,  232,  234,  235 

"Fanita"  expedition,  73,  80 
Fauna,  158-162 

Ferrand,  General  L.  M.,  35-39,  259 
Ferrocarril  Central  Dominicano,  see 

Central  Dominican  Railway 
Figuereo,  Juan  Wenceslao,  74,  75, 

77,  401 

Finances:  municipal,  385-388;  na- 
tional, 376-385,  394;  budget,  334, 
376-383;  department  of  finance, 
311, 381;  public  debt,  335, 35°-375 

Fiscal  convention  with  United  States, 
82,  84,  146,  350,  367-374,  39°, 
404-408 

Fish,  159 

Flag  of  Dominican  Republic,  43 

Flechas,  Las,  106,  107 

Flora,  144-158 

Foreign  affairs,  310,  311,  381 

Forests,  158 


Frances,  Cape,  102 

French  colony:  settlement,  25;  pros- 
perity, 28;  slave  uprising,  30; 
ruin,  35 

French  revolution,  29 

Fruits,  150,  157 

Fuenmayor,  Alonso  de,  22,  397,  398 

Fuerza,  La,  44 

Future  of  Santo  Domingo,  389-395 

Gallinas  trail,  221,  224,  225 

Gaming,  182 

Garcia,  Joaquin,  governor,  32,  399 

Gaspar  Hernandez,  see  La  Goleta 

Geological  formation,  132-134 

Germany,  rupture  with,  96 

Goats,  161 

Gold,  4,  6,  134-137 

Gonzalez,  Ignacio  Maria,  65-67, 
324,  400,  401 

Government,  municipal,  316-320; 
national,  303-316,  381,  382;  pro- 
vincial, 316-319,  381 

Governors  of  provinces,  317-319, 
3S3,  381;  of  Santo  Domingo,  397- 
401 

Gran  Estero  swamp,  103, 104, 107,208 

Grant,  President  of  United  States,  64 

"Green"  party,  68,  323,  324 

Guacanagari,  3,  4,  6,  8 

Guarionex,  2 

Guayacanes,  engagement  of,  92 

Guayubin,  58,  228,  273,  344 

Guerra,  225,  261 

Guibia,  85 

Guillermo,  Cesareo,  67-69,  401 

Guillermo,  Pedro,  61 

Haiti,  meaning,  2;  declaration  of  in- 
dependence, 36;  wars  with  Domi- 
nican Republic,  45,  47,  48;  area, 
98;  boundary  disputes,  85,  98- 


INDEX 


413 


100,  114,  115;  race,  169;  govern- 
ment, 303;  presidents,  306 

Haitian  rule  in  Santo  Domingo,  42- 
44,  170,  245,  33  / 

Harbors,  100-114 

Hartmont  &  Co.,  loan,  63,  65,  354 

Health  conditions,  129-131 

Henriquez  Carvajal,  Francisco,  93- 

95»  401 
Herard,  Charles,  President  of  Haiti, 

43.  47.  399 
Heureaux,  Ulises,  67-75,  3°4»  3°8> 

315,  324,  328,  335,  401;  picture 

opposite  page  68 
Higuayagua,  3 

Higuey,  3,  15,  28,  192,  225,  262 
Hispaniola,  3 
History.  1-96 
Hondo  Valle,  115 
Hollander,  Prof.  Jacob  H.,  344,  345, 

3S2»  359.  368,  371,  372 
Holy  Hill,  see  Santo  Cerro 
Horacista  party,  76,  324,  325 
Hostos,   Eugenic  M.  de,   educator, 

198,  199,  203 
House  of  Columbus,  see  Columbus 

house 

Houses,  183,  184 
Hurricanes,  14,  29,  129 

Immigration,  165,  170,  314,  382 

Imports,  232-235,  379 

Indians,  characteristics  and  customs, 
2;  oppression  of,  9,  13,  14;  ex- 
termination of,  15,  17-20,  163,  164 

Inns,  221 

Insects,  158,  159 

Iron,  136,  137,  138 

Isabel  de  Torres,  Mt.,  117,  271 

Isabela,  founding,  6;  abandonment, 
10;  site,  101 

Islands,  109,  114,  126 


Jackson,  port,  104 

Jails,  345-348,  381 

Jaina  River,  23,  24,  83,  in,  222,  226 

Jarabacoa,  266 

Jaragua,  3,  15 

Jimenez,  Juan  Isidro,  72,  73,  75-81, 
89-91,  308,  324,  401;  picture  op- 
posite page  68 

Jimenez,  Manuel,  48,  49,  400 

Jimenista  party,  76,  324-326 

Jimenoa  River,  125 

Judiciary,  336-343.  381 

Justice,  314,  336-345,  348 

Justices  of  the  peace,  320,  341,  381 

Kerverseau,  General,  35,  36,  399 
Knapp,  H.  S.,  Rear-Admiral  U.  S.  N., 
military  governor,  94-96,  3 16,  401 

La  Concepcion,  8,  228,  278 

"La  Fuerza,"  72,  248 

La  Gina,  209,  210,  214 

La  Goleta,  102 

La  Navidad,  5,  6 

La  Romana,  no,  152,  215,  263 

La  Vega  City,  founding  of,  8,  n; 
destruction  by  earthquake,  22; 
burned,  37;  damaged  by  earth- 
quake, 43;  site,  142,  228,  265;  pop- 
ulation, 167;  railroad,  208;  roads, 
223,  227,  228;  description,  265,  266 

La  Vega  province,  population,  166; 
towns,  265,  266 

Laguna  del  Fondo,  125 

Lakes,  125,  126 

Language,  172 

Land  titles,  147 

Las  Canitas,  108,  263 

Las  Carreras,  battle  of,  48,  227 

Las  Casas,  164,  278,  300 

Las  Lajas,  276 

Las  Matas,  274 


INDEX 


Laws,  336-343 
Le  Clerc,  General,  35 
Liberals,  46,  47,  322,  323 
Libon  River,  115 
Libraries,  202 
Lighthouses,  102,  109,  114 
Lilicistas,  77,  324 
Literature,  203-205 
Lodges,  195,  196 

Luperon,  Gregorio,  63,  67-69,  323, 
401 

Macoris,  city,  see  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris  and  San  Francisco  de 
Macoris  < 

Macoris,  province,  population,  116; 
towns,  261,  262 

Maguana,  3,  274 

Manufacturing,  240,  241 

Manzanillo  Bay,  100 

Marchena,  Eugenio  Generoso,  70 

Margarite,  Moisen  Pedro,  7 

Mariel  or  Marien,  2 

Mattin  Garcia  Point,  113 

Massacre  River,  100,  115,  273 

Matanzas,  103,  104,  264 

McCIellan,  George  B.,  U.  S.  Army, 
56 

Measures,  148,  402,  403 

Mella,  223,  224,  261 

Mental  traits,  174-177 

Merino,  Fernando  A.  de,  archbishop, 
187,  1 88,  191;  president,  68,  195, 

401 

Military  government  of  United 
States,  see  American  administra- 
tion 

Mineral  deposits,  132,  134-141 

Moca,  37,  53,  74,  76,  157,  209,  211, 
214,  267 

Modus  vivendi  with  United  States, 
82,  367,  37i»  37*.  389 


Mole  St.  Nicolas,  3 

Monetary  system,  383-385 

Monte  Cristi  province,  80,  83;  popu- 
lation, 166;  towns,  272,  273;  au- 
tonomous, 3 1 8 

Monte  Cristi  Range,  101,  103 

Monte  Cristi  town  and  port,  5,  24, 

37.  9i»  92,  i°i,  27» 
Monte  Plata,  28,  37,  261 
Morales,  Carlos  F.,  78-84,  87,  195, 

309,312,401 
Morality,  182,  183 
Moreau  de  St.  Mery,  281-284 
Mountains,  116-120 
Moya,  Casimiro  N.  de,  69 
Mulattoes,  28-30,  168 
Municipal  districts,  320 
Municipalities:    government,    316- 

321;  finances,  385-388 
Music,  177,  180,  205 

Najayo,  24,  III 

National  Guard,  313 

Navidad,  see  La  Navidad 

Navy,  313,  314,  382 

Negroes,  importation  of,  19,  21,  42, 

170;  uprising  in  French  colony,  30 
Negroes    from    United    States,    42, 

170,  171,  263 
Neiba:  bay,   113;  mountains,   119; 

river,  123;  valley,  121 
Newspapers,  202,  203 
Nisibon  Point,  109 
Nizao  River,  124 
Nouel,  Adolfo  A.,  archbishop,  88, 

188,   325,  401;   picture  opposite 

page  68 
Nunez  de  Caceres,  Jose,  president  of 

Spanish  Haiti,  41,  399 

Ocoa  Bay,  112 
Oge,  30 


INDEX 


415 


Ojeda,  Alonso  de,  9 
Official  Gazette,  339 
I'Ouverture,  Paul,  34,  35 
1'Ouverture,  Toussaint,  30-35 
Ovando,  Nicolas  de,  13-17,  243,  252, 

2SS.  397 
Oxen  as  riding  animals,  217;  picture 

opposite  page  270 
Ozama  River,  IO,  14,  53,  no,  124, 

220,  223,  243,  248,  249 

Pacificador  province,  population, 
166;  towns,  264;  name,  317 

Pajarito,  260 

Palenque,  38,  39,  ill,  261 

Palo  Hincado,  battle  of,  39 

Paper  money,  54,  74,  384,  385 

Pedernales  River,  113,  115 

Pelaez,  General,  57 

Pendleton,  Joseph  H.,  Brig.  Gen., 
U.  S.  M.  C,  92 

Penn,  Admiral  William,  23,  in,  244 

Pefialva,  Count  of,  25,  248,  398 

Pensions,  352,  381,  382 

Peralta,  Isidore,  281-284,  291,  399 

Perez  Caro,  Admiral,  27,  398 

Perlas  Bay,  108 

Petroleum,  140,  141 

Pierce,  President  of  United  States, 

55 

Pierrot,  President  of  Haiti,  47 
Pimentel,  Pedro  Antonio,  60,  61,  400 
Pimentel,  town,  210,  224,  264 
Pirates,  24,  28,  104,  109 
Plains,  120-122 
Poetry,  204,  205 
Polanco,  Caspar,  60,  400 
Police,  310,  311-313,  381,  382 
Political  parties,  322-327 
Politics,  322-335 
Population,  163-168 
Port-a-1'Ecu,  3 


Port-au-Prince,  30,  228 

Port-de-Paix,  4,  26,  27,  30 

Ports  of  entry,  237 

Postal  service,  230,  314 

Presidents,  powers  and  terms,  303- 
310;  salary,  381;  list  of,  399-401 

Prisons,  343,  345-348,  381 

Protectorate,  American,  389-395; 
French,  55 

Protestant  sects,  196 

Provinces,  population,  166;  cities, 
242-276;  government,  316-319 

Public  debt,  335,  350-375 

Public  lands,  146 

Puerta  del  Conde,  41,  43,  56,  248, 
331;  picture  facing  page  42 

Puerto  Hermoso,  112 

Puerto  Plata,  24,  58,  80,  82,  83,  88, 
$9>  9*>  92>  harbor,  102;  origin  of 
name,  117;  tobacco,  156;  popula- 
tion, 167;  railroad,  210,  214;  de- 
scription, 269-272;  town  council, 
320;  scenes  from,  facing  pages  140, 
270 

Puerto  Plata  province:  population, 
166;  towns,  269-272 

Puerto  Viejo,  113 

Quadrupeds,  indigenous,  160 
Quisqueya,  meaning,  2 

Race,  168-170,  173-175 

Rafael,  Cape,  109 

Railroads,  207-216 

Rainfall,  127,  128,  148,  149 

Ramirez  de  Fuenleal,  Sebastian, 
Bishop,  19,  397 

"Red"  party,  68,  323,  324 

Regla  Mota,  Manuel  de,  vice-presi- 
dent, 52,  53,  400 

Religion,  185-196 

Reptiles,  159 


4i6 


INDEX 


Restauracion,  115,  273 

Restoration,  War  of  the,  58 

Revenues:  municipal,  385,  386;  na- 
tional, 376-380 

Revolutions,  328-335 

Rice,  158 

Rio  de  Oro,  5 

Rivers,  122-125 

Roads,  207,  210,  215,  216-229;  P'c- 
tures  facing  page  218 

Rodriguez,  Demetrio,  82 

Rojas,  Benigno  Filomeno  de,  60, 400 

Roldan,  Francisco,  11,  14,  266 

Royal  Plain,  discovery  of,  7;  battle 
of,  8;  location,  120;  fertility,  149; 
population,  168;  railroad,  208, 
210;  road,  227 

Royal  Valley,  see  Royal  Plain 

Ryswick,  peace  of,  27 

Sabana  Buey,  48 

Sabana  la  Mar,  109,  225,  264 

Sabana  Larga,  battle  of,  52 

Sabaneta  Point,  103;  town,  273 

Salcedo,  Jose  Antonio,  60,  400 

Salcedo,  town,  209,  214,  267 

Salt,  139 

Samana  Bay,  discovery,  5;  lease  to 
United  States,  62,  63,  106;  de- 
scription, 105-109;  pictures,  facing 
pages  1 06,  158 

Samana  Bay  Company,  65,  389 

Samana,  Cape,  105 

Samana  mountains,  104,  105,  116, 
117 

Samana  peninsula,  lease  to  United 
States,  62,  106;  lease  to  Samana 
Bay  Company,  65 

Samana  province,  population,  166; 
towns,  263,  264 

Samana,  town  of,  26,  27,  38,  39,  53, 
107,  263 


Samana-Santiago  Railroad,  107, 
207-210,  372 

San  Carlos,  35,  49,  76,  77,  259 

San  Cristobal,  49,  226,  260 

San  Domingo  Improvement  Com- 
pany, 70,  81,  211,  212,  214,  356- 
360,  366,  371,  372 

San  Francisco  church,  37,  253,  281; 
picture  facing  page  186 

San  Francisco  de  Macoris,  209, 
210,  264 

San  Geronimo,  fort,  24,  39,  85,  91, 
226,  259 

San  Jose  de  las  Matas,  37,  269 

San  Jose  de  los  Llanos,  226,  262 

San  Lorenzo  Bay,  108,  109 

San  Nicolas  church,  252 

San  Pedro  de  Macoris,  harbor,  no; 
sugar  plantations,  152;  popula- 
tion, 167;  town,  261;  picture  of 
harbor  opposite  page  238 

Sanchez,  Francisco  del  Rosario,  43, 

46,57 
Sanchez  Ramirez,  Juan,  39,  40,  291, 

399 

Sanchez,  town,  107,  108,  155,  209, 
263 

Sanitation,  130 

Santa  Barbara  de  Samana,  see 
Samana,  town 

Santa  Capuza,  point,  107,  208 

Santana,  Pedro,  general,  president, 
governor,  45-58,  315,  323,  400; 
picture  opposite  page  68 

Santiago  City,  founding  of,  n;  de- 
stroyed by  earthquake,  22;  ran- 
somed, 26;  burned,  27;  in  decline, 
28;  captured  by  Christophe,  37; 
damaged  by  earthquake,  43; 
capital,  53,  58,  60;  burned,  58; 
occupied  by  Americans,  92;  to- 
bacco, 156;  coffee,  157;  popula- 


INDEX 


417 


tion,  167;  railroad,  210,  213;  de- 
scription, 267,  268 

Santo  Cerro,  location  of,  120,  227, 
266;  miracle  of,  8,  190;  shrine,  191 

Santo  Domingo  City,  founding  of, 
10;  removal,  14;  golden  age,  16; 
capture  by  Drake,  22;  attack  by 
Penn  and  Venables,  23;  siege  by 
Dessalines,  36;  siege  by  Sanchez 
Ramirez,  39;  sieges  by  Santana, 
49>  53!  evacuated  by  Spaniards, 
59;  sieges  in  revolutions,  76,  77, 
79;  occupation  by  Americans,  91; 
harbor,  no;  population,  167,  168; 
description,  242-260;  pictures, 
frontispiece  and  facing  pages  42, 
1 80,  1 86,  250,  256,  386 

Santo  Domingo  province:  popula- 
tion, 1 66;  towns,  243-261 

Santo  Tomas,  fortress,  7 

San  tome,  battle  of,  52 

Saumatre,  Lake,  124 

Saona  Island,  16,  109 

Savannas,  149,  222,  224,  225 

Schools,  189,  195,  196,  199-202,  382, 

387 

Seibo,  town,  28,  29,  47,  78,  215,  262 
Seibo,  plain,  121 
Seibo    province,    population,     166; 

towns,  262,  263 
Sheep,  161 

Sillon  de  la  Viuda,  221,  223 
Silver,  138 
Slavery,  9,  13,  17,  19,  20,  29,  42,  164, 

165 

Soco,  no 
Sosua,  79,  157 

Soulouque,  48,  50,  52,  56,  303 
Springs,  141,  142 
Steamship  lines,  221,  229,  230 
Sugar,  150-154 
Syrians,  238,  239 


Tamboril,  228,  269 

Tariff,  236,  377-379 

Telegraphs  and  telephones,  230,  231, 

3H 

Tejera,  Luis,  86 

Temperature,  126-128 

Theaters,  179,  180 

Tierra  Nueva,  276 

Timber,  158 

Tina,  Mt.,  118 

Tobacco,  155,  156 

Toledo,  Maria  de,  17,  246,  278 

Topography,  116-126 

Tortuga  Island,  4,  25,  26 

Tortuguero  Port,  112 

Toussaint  1'Ouverture,  30-35 

Tower  of  Homage,  46,  248,  249;  pic- 
ture facing  page  256 

Transportation,  means  of,  207-217, 
221,  229,  330 

Tres  Amarras,  103 

Trinitaria,  La,  secret  society,  43 

Turtles,  159 

United  States,  annexation  to,  55,  56, 
62-65,  389-393;  assistance  by,  87, 
89,  394;  intervention  by,  91-96; 
protectorate,  389-393 

University  of  Santo  Domingo,  197, 
200 

Urena  de  Henriquez,  Salome,  201, 
205 

Valleys,  120-123 

Valverde,  Jose  Desiderio,  53,  400 

Vasquez,  Horacio,  72,  74-77,  79,  87, 

89.   309»   324»   32S»  40i;   picture 

opposite  page  88 
Vega  Real,  see  Royal  Plain 
Vega,  city  of,  see  La  Vega 
Velazquez,  Diego,  15 
Velazquez,  Federico,  89,  325,  326, 


41 8  INDEX 

368,    370-372;    picture    opposite  Whites,  exodus  of,  33,  42,  165 

page  88  Woods,  158 

Venables,  General,  24,  in  Woss  y  Gil,  Alejandro,  69,  77-80, 

Victoria,  Alfredo  M.,  86  401 

Victoria,  Eladio,  86-88,  401  Writers,  203-204 
Villa  Rivas,  210,  264 

Yamasa,  224,  261 

Waterfalls,  125  Yaque  del  Norte  River,  5,  101,  120, 

War,  department  of,  311,  382  122,228 

War  of  the  Restoration,  58,  59  Yaque  del  Sur  River,  123 

Weights,  402,  403  Yaque  Peak,  118,  122 

Westendorp  &  Co.,   bankers,   211,  Yasica  River,  102 

3SS>  356  Yuna    River,    108,    120,    123,    209, 

Wharf  facilities,  238  222 


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